In 1988 HM Inspectorate published the report Management of Educational Resources: Effective Secondary Schools. It identified some of the features common to many of the schools which, through inspections over the period 1984 to 1988, were judged to be effective. The report stated: "Possibly the most important single factor in school effectiveness is the quality of teaching. Education, however, is far more than the sum of the contributions of individual teachers; it demands good leadership and sound management which have a significant effect on pupils' learning." Chapter 2 of the report focused on the characteristics of effective learning and teaching across the curriculum, and drew examples from a range of subject departments.
This report on business education is the thirteenth of a series that aims to identify the features which contribute to effective learning and teaching in specific subjects. It derives from the inspection of more than 150 business studies departments conducted since 1983, and from the monitoring and evaluation of developments in the teaching of business education, and from participating in national developments.
DOUGLAS A OSLER
HM Senior Chief Inspector of Schools
1. Introduction
This report is based on inspections of more than 150 business studies departments over the past 13 years, a period of significant change in the curriculum. It describes features of effective learning and teaching in business education and economics and identifies issues for further debate and development. Business studies teachers and senior management in schools should use this report as a sound basis from which to evaluate their own work and decide what changes, if any, they need to make.
2. Business Education in the curriculum
Business and enterprise are at the heart of national growth and development and this is reflected in the important place that business education has in the post-school curriculum. It has yet to attain this status in school education. Business education offers opportunities for individuals to develop the crucial skills and knowledge which allow them to access, understand and contribute to the dynamic and complex business information environment. Whatever the career pathway or progression route, business education can contribute to a person's effectiveness.
Each of the business education subjects contributes to a pupil’s understanding of business from a particular perspective, but none provides a fully integrated study of business activity.
Economics comprises a large and distinctive body of knowledge and concepts. It develops the knowledge and skills which promote an understanding of the economic dimension in life and of the economic forces which have a major impact on pupils' lives. It helps them to make more informed political, social and personal decisions. It also provides an important building block for anyone seeking a systematic and disciplined approach to business.
The study of accounting and finance illuminates many of the key issues which concern businesses and public sector organisations. Accounting has been defined as "the process of identifying, measuring and communicating economic information to permit informed judgements and decisions by users". It has an obvious vocational relevance and benefits the individual in his or her roles as employee, employer, investor or citizen.
Office and information studies (OIS) and secretarial studies focus on collecting, sorting, storing, processing, retrieving and presenting information. These functions provide the information which is the life-blood of organisations and is required for effective communication, decision-making and control. In both subjects pupils learn to use information technology effectively.
Management and information studies (MIS) brings together the perspectives of the other business education subjects and emphasises the importance of people and their contribution to making an organisation work. The study of MIS helps pupils understand the factors which influence decision-making. It enables them to understand the complexity of organisations and the need to balance decisions made throughout an organisation so that they are compatible with each other and with its objectives.
Apart from the contribution made by each of the subjects, if the courses are well taught they will stimulate in pupils constructive attitudes to learning which will be of life-long benefit to them.
3. Provision and uptake in schools
Business studies departments provide courses for pupils at all stages of the secondary school, although involvement with S1 and S2 is limited. Most departments involved in S1 or S2 offer a course which concentrates on keyboarding and simple text handling. Most forward-looking departments offer, or contribute to, a course in information technology which builds upon the work begun in primary schools through the implementation of the National Guidelines for Environmental Studies 5-14. Some departments offer taster courses in S2 comprising elements of the different Standard Grade courses offered but these often lack coherence.
In S3 and S4 departments usually offer at least two of the three subjects available: OIS, accounting and finance and economics. In 1995 approximately 31% of the age cohort achieved a pass in a business education subject, 17,273 pupils in one subject, 2,230 in two and 104 in three. Since 1987 there has been a decline of 29% in the number of awards in the business education subjects, 49% in accounting and finance, 43% in economics and 10% in OIS, largely because of the lack of availability of Standard Grade examinations in S5. Presentations have also declined because of competition from the increased number of subjects available. Over 75% of the pupils taking business education subjects are female. The gender balance varies from subject to subject; 85% of pupils in OIS are female, 56% in accounting and finance and 43% in economics.
In S5 and S6 the situation is similar but more complex. Four subjects are available: secretarial studies, accounting and finance, economics, and MIS. In 1995 80 business studies departments offered one subject, 104 offered two, 123 offered three and 89 offered four. Over 65% of the pupils taking business education subjects are female. The gender balance varies from subject to subject; 95% of pupils in secretarial studies are female, 66% in MIS, 53% in accounting and finance and 45% in economics. Since 1989 the number of awards in economics, accounting and finance or secretarial studies, has declined by 32% overall, 42% in economics, 40% in accounting and finance and 24% in secretarial studies. This has been offset largely by the increasing popularity of MIS in which 3,307 candidates gained an award in 1995. When MIS is taken into account, there has been an overall decline in the number of awards in business education of 9% since 1989.
The increase in the number of pupils who stay on at school in S5 and S6 has put pressure on the curriculum. Not all pupils who study subjects at the Higher Grade have a good chance of success. The likelihood of success at Higher Grade for pupils with passes at grade 3 in Standard Grade ranges from 23% in accounting and finance to 46% in secretarial studies. With awards at grade 4 in Standard Grade the likelihood of success falls and ranges from 21% in economics to 10% in accounting and finance.
The number of pupils taking National Certificate modules has increased significantly over the same period. They are used as a stepping-stone to the Higher, as an alternative for those for whom study at the Higher Grade is unlikely to lead to success and as an end in themselves for those who wish to acquire skills, usually in information technology, for personal use.
4. Learning and teaching approaches
The relationship between a teacher and a pupil lies at the heart of successful learning and teaching. Successful learning is a blend of the many factors which influence this partnership and involves imaginative teachers planning the experiences of their pupils, choosing appropriate learning and teaching approaches, ensuring that the curriculum meets the needs of pupils, that pupils receive regular, well-judged homework and that their work is correctly and regularly assessed.
Planning is essential if pupils taking a course are to do well. Departments which plan their teaching well ensure that they take the previous experience and learning of pupils into account, that all relevant elements of the course are covered and that time is left to permit current events to be included. It also allows departments to guarantee that all pupils are given opportunities to achieve at the highest possible level and that internally assessed work is completed to avoid an unseemly rush towards the end of the course. It is rare for planning to lead to rigid and inflexible teaching.
Pupils vary in their response to different teaching approaches. Effective business education teachers select, and use effectively, a well balanced range of whole class, group and individual learning and teaching strategies, often within one lesson, but more commonly within a unit of work. Learning and teaching approaches must be varied to meet the requirements of the different assessable elements in subjects and care must be taken at all stages to ensure that knowledge and understanding is systematically developed. The heavy emphasis on individual work, especially at Standard Grade, needs to be reduced by increasing the use of both group work and interactive expository teaching.
Most departments give pupils homework. If teachers treat it as an important part of pupils' learning and give it systematically, pupils tend to produce consistently good results in examinations. Not all departments do this. It is common in all subjects at Higher Grade and at Standard Grade especially in S4 but should be increased in S3 in all subjects, especially OIS. Good departments view homework as an opportunity to extend the time available to pupils in the course and often increase teaching time by asking pupils to read and prepare work in advance, thus allowing teachers to spend more time in class in active teaching.
Business studies departments have always coped with pupils with different levels of ability. Although the introduction of Standard Grade eased the difficulty by offering pupils differentiated targets, teachers faced the new challenge of coping with pupils of different ability levels, following a differentiated syllabus, in one classroom. Some departments responded, where numbers permitted, by setting or broad banding. This is generally effective but not possible in all subjects because of small numbers of pupils. Most departments offer differentiated materials to pupils on a core and extension basis. Virtually all teachers differentiate the questions which they ask and the responses which they expect. In S5 and S6 the introduction of National Certificate modules has enabled departments to offer a more appropriate curriculum to pupils unlikely to succeed in Higher Grade examinations. It is also important that teaching is at an appropriate pace. Many departments underestimate the pace at which pupils can work.
Assessment practices in Standard Grade courses are good in the vast majority of schools. Departments generally prepare pupils well for external examinations. Despite the emphasis put on preparing pupils for the external assessment, more departments are using testing to identify pupils’ strengths and weaknesses and discussing these with them. Fewer, however, use the report to parents to identify the next steps in learning. Teachers mark a great deal of work and many departments encourage pupils to mark their own work; more attention needs to be paid, however, to checking that the required work has been done by pupils and this involves systematic monitoring of pupil folders and computer disks.
5. Accommodation, resourcing and staffing
Business studies teachers are well qualified both academically and have relevant experience. Women make up three-quarters of the number of teachers but hold just over half the posts of principal teacher. The implications of this imbalance for the careers of women teachers and the impact on the perceptions of both boys and girls should be considered. In recent years, with the introduction of Standard Grade and a range of revised Higher Grade courses, teachers have needed more staff development. Nationally and regionally there has been a high level of response to the development needs identified. Teachers have, commendably, made use of the opportunities offered to them to improve their skills
The courses which business studies departments offer are delivered in a combination of general classrooms and specialist laboratories. Although the quantity of accommodation is adequate, frequently there is not enough space on desks in specialist rooms for pupils to work at a computer and to be able to write comfortably. A variety of room layouts are satisfactory but some are quite inflexible. Most departments have adequate storage space and provide an attractive learning environment which is enhanced with colourful, bright and stimulating displays. Such displays could be improved if pupils' work were used more frequently.
Almost all departments allocate their resources satisfactorily for the courses being offered Although the provision of computers is good in many schools, in some there are too few computers and in others the computers available are outdated and do not reflect current business practice. Some departments also use outdated software which means that pupils learn outdated skills, do not appreciate the power of current software and do not see how complex tasks can be done simply. Departments depend heavily on a range of course materials which are photocopied and given to pupils. Textbooks are used to varying degrees in the different subjects and their use could profitably be increased.
6. Managing the department
Business studies departments most commonly consist of a principal teacher and two other members of staff, who offer two or three subjects at Standard Grade subjects, three or four at Higher Grade and a range of National Certificate modules. The leadership of the principal teacher is perhaps the single most important contribution to an effective department. Good principal teachers display a range of qualities including professional competence, effective teaching skills, good organisational abilities and the ability to create and maintain good relationships.
In small departments responsibilities need to be shared and this is done in most. Many departments encourage teacher specialisation in one subject at Higher Grade. This permits the teacher to develop considerable expertise; it is important, however, that teachers are able to teach the full range of subjects which the department offers. It is the responsibility of the principal teacher to ensure that this happens.
In most departments communication is good and staff communicate well with each other, often on an informal basis. Virtually all departments have a weekly departmental meeting and in the best departments time is made available for teachers to discuss and reach shared decisions on important matters. Most departments have a formal link with the senior management team but this is not always used as well as it could be. The majority of departments have a departmental handbook to guide staff on procedures and on school and departmental policy so that practice is consistent across the department. The quality of departmental handbooks is variable but the best are found in departments which have allowed adequate time in meetings to discuss substantive issues.
The most important part of a principal teacher’s responsibilities lies in ensuring that the pupils who come to the department receive the highest quality of education which it can offer. This means that the work of the department needs to be monitored and evaluated. Many principal teachers do this, but only to a limited degree, and the quality of pupils' experience could be improved if they did it more systematically and formally.