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Count Us In - Achieving inclusion in Scottish schools

3 The characteristics of inclusive practice in schools

3.1 This chapter will draw on a wide body of evidence to show how practical steps have been taken in schools to turn the theory of inclusion into reality. The examples given are organised according to the framework in How good is our school?. They are intended to provide a source of ideas for education authorities, school managers and teachers who wish to analyse their own approaches and identify possible improvements.

3.2 The schools visited showed a diverse range of approaches towards promoting inclusion. In many cases they were taking action on a number of fronts, through a range of specific initiatives. Inspectors also explored the views of staff, pupils and parents on issues of inclusion and how they should be addressed. Whilst these perspectives were as wide-ranging as the practice seen in the schools, we have tried to reflect them clearly in the overview presented on the following pages.

Ethos

3.3 The ethos established within a school community is of fundamental importance in establishing a climate in which every individual can prosper. The schools visited were generally characterised by a very positive ethos, reflecting strong shared values. These schools aimed to establish a climate in which there was a consistent emphasis on high expectations for all pupils, promoting and addressing issues of equality and fairness, and effective encouragement for all pupils to be fully involved in the life of the school.

Features of good practice in developing an inclusive ethos included:

  • a school ethos that consistently reflected a set of clearly articulated values;
  • a strong feeling amongst pupils, parents, staff and visitors that they were valued;
  • a clear sense that pupils were known and treated as individuals by staff;
  • a strong sense of pride in the school on the part of pupils;
  • good relationships between staff and pupils, and amongst pupils;
  • expectations of high standards in every aspect of school life based on the principle that only the best will do;
  • a pro-active and positive approach to managing behaviour and discipline, based on encouraging self-awareness, self-respect and co-operation, and focused on improving the conditions for learning;
  • a balance between pupils' rights and their responsibilities to the school community;
  • the allocation of an appropriate degree of responsibility to pupils within the school, for their own learning and, where appropriate, for supporting others;
  • concern to ensure equality of treatment and opportunity and to value the contribution that diversity in language, religion, race, culture and special educational needs can make to the life of the school;
  • opportunities for all pupils to experience success and a sense of achievement, to develop their self-esteem;
  • full participation of individuals and groups with special needs in social as well as curricular activities; and
  • high levels of consultation with pupils and parents on important aspects of school life and on the extent to which the school was meeting its aims.

"All staff work towards inclusion rather than integration. With integration, the child fits into the school. With inclusion, the school adjusts to the child."
Primary headteacher


In one small rural primary school, the inclusion of a pupil with severe learning difficulties had led to the learning of sign language by his peer group. In another similar school, pupils had acquired an unusually mature and sensitive understanding of the particular needs of children with rare medical conditions.


In two large urban secondary schools, very good use was made of systematic surveys of pupil opinion to include pupils more fully in the life of the school. Two types of survey had been carried out, in one case involving over 80% of the school population on a voluntary basis and in another with target groups of pupils at regular intervals. The surveys related to aspects of school life which had been identified as a priority by the school. They were designed to support continuous communication between senior managers in the school, pupils and parents about their perceptions of school life.

Leadership and management

3.4 Across all of the schools visited, dynamic leadership and effective management of change were key ingredients of a successful drive towards greater educational and social inclusion. Effective headteachers had a clear vision of educational inclusion that was well communicated, and shared by staff. This vision was evident in how the head and other staff went about their day-to-day work and in the way they related to pupils, parents and other staff. It was based upon the values of the school and incorporated concern for wider dimensions of achievement and support for all pupils. In most cases, inclusion was firmly linked to school improvement, with a strong commitment to improving educational standards for all pupils.

3.5 Almost all of the schools visited had clearly defined aims that strongly reflected the concept of educational inclusion. In certain schools, a point was made of emphasising common aims for all pupils, including, for example, those with special needs. Effective aims were based on a rounded view of pupils. They emphasised the goal of maximising pupils' attainment and achievements alongside an equal commitment to supporting their personal and social development as individuals.

In one primary school, staff praised the visibility and accessibility of the headteacher who was around classes and the behaviour base. The headteacher was regarded as having a clear vision and philosophy, a 'can do' response to problems and a focus on 'ends not means'.


"Underpinning all these (strategies) are our attempts to promote a coherent set of values and approaches across departments so that our young people meet with a reasonable degree of consistency."
Secondary headteacher


In one primary school with enhanced provision for pupils with special educational needs, the headteacher and staff had avoided having a range of separate policies for these pupils. They had been careful to minimise specific mention of pupils with special educational needs. Instead all school policies were written on an 'inclusion for all basis'. The senior staff made it very clear that they really did mean 'for all'.
All pupils in the school had benefited.

3.6 The most effective schools generally incorporated inclusion issues into their overall approach to self-evaluation and development planning, rather than introducing separate procedures for the purpose. Evaluation of the school's success in meeting their stated aims was seen as very important.

3.7 There was no doubt that where monitoring and self-evaluation activities were focused on the needs of pupils, or on the extent to which the school was fulfilling its stated aims, schools' priorities supported fuller educational inclusion more effectively. The same principle applied to the management of change and improvement through development planning.

Features of good practice in leadership and management included:

  • a clear vision and strategy for the development of inclusion, pursued effectively through strong leadership from the headteacher and other staff throughout the school;
  • an open and accessible management style that sought to involve staff and pupils in decision making;
  • good knowledge of individuals on the part of senior promoted staff;
  • effective use of the school's staffing and resources to support and extend learning opportunities, with a focus on outcomes for children, and innovation and flexibility in the way these were achieved;
  • concern to monitor the impact of such innovation on individuals and different groups of pupils;
  • use of data on attendance, exclusions, participation in extra-curricular activities and attainment to evaluate progress in inclusion and to identify priorities for further action;
  • priorities for the future that were clearly articulated in realistic development planning, shared and understood by the staff;
  • a strong belief in building effective partnerships with other agencies which support children and families;
  • a strong commitment to involving parents and the wider community in supporting effective learning and teaching; and
  • procedures to ensure that the views of parents were sought, taken seriously and acted upon where practicable.

"Policies should always address individuals' rights."
Primary headteacher

Access to an inclusive curriculum

3.8 Schools in the survey placed a high priority on offering an inclusive curriculum, that is, a set of learning experiences for all pupils which reflected their needs and aspirations. Sustained efforts were made at whole-school and individual level to assess pupils' curricular and social needs and to meet them. In some cases this involved inter-agency discussion to plan for the provision of highly individualised programmes.

3.9 In some schools, provision within the school was very clearly viewed as only one stage in a continuum of learning, stretching from the period before pupils entered the school until long after they had left. The school was seen as only one source of learning experiences for pupils, or of supporting pupils in their learning.

3.10 Almost all secondary schools had effective arrangements to help pupils to make decisions about their course choices and their future careers. Imaginative and varied use was often made of a range of sources of funding to meet the identified needs of pupils and of the community as a whole.

3.11 An increasingly flexible approach to making curricular provision was beginning to be developed. This was most evident in relation to groups of pupils who had particular needs. In the best practice, where a decision had been taken to move away from the nationally developed advice on the breadth and balance of the curriculum, this had been done against a clear educational rationale, which addressed positively the interests of the pupils concerned.

3.12 To be effective in promoting inclusion through the curriculum, schools relied on certain key systems which helped them identify and address curricular needs, namely:

"We try to ensure that no-one is deliberately excluded from any activity of the school or its curriculum, but recognise that not all activities are equally appropriate for all. So we deliberately widen the range of opportunities for all."
Secondary headteacher


Features of good practice in managing the curriculum included:

  • well-developed systems to review and monitor the range and balance of the curriculum offered in meeting the needs of pupils;
  • curriculum planning which ensured a high but appropriate level of challenge for all pupils;
  • effective links between, for example, pre-school centres and primary schools, primary and secondary schools, secondary schools and further education colleges, and among adjacent primary, secondary and special schools, including joint delivery of courses where appropriate;
  • effective support for pupils at transition stages in their education to ensure smooth progression;
  • good use of staffing, including inter-agency support teams, to offer flexible, alternative provision;
  • a clear strategy to monitor and evaluate the impact of flexible provision;
  • the promotion of healthy lifestyles as an underpinning principle of the curriculum;
  • ways of ensuring that the learning opportunities offered by the school met the needs of pupils from all cultures represented in the school, used the different cultural experiences of pupils and their families, and made clear links to the context of the community;
  • good links between the schools and the community through involvement in community events and with community groups;
  • a wide range of extra-curricular activities, planned and provided to encourage pupils' personal and social development; and
  • ways of ensuring that all pupils could access extra-curricular and residential activities where parents had financial hardship or there were barriers of disability.

In one primary school serving an area of multiple deprivation, participation in a Comenius project had encouraged pupils to broaden their horizons through sharing their experiences with their peers in partner schools in Europe. Pupils began to see themselves as equal partners with a significant contribution to make, not only in their own school, but in the life of their partner schools in Europe.


Two primary schools had increased the prominence given to the expressive arts within the curriculum, as a means of fostering success and achievement. A particularly high profile was given to drama as a means of fostering self-confidence and self-expression, and to art as a means of allowing some children to excel in a field which highlighted a different range of skills and abilities.


One primary school had introduced a programme of initial careers education for P7 pupils, to ensure that they and their parents were well informed of the life choices they would be making at later stages. The programme included visits to local businesses and to a college of further education. The college staff and students had become involved with the school's home link team and with parents in planning improvements to the school grounds. Links had been established with local businesses, including an industrial placement undertaken by the headteacher.

Learning, teaching and support for pupils

3.13 The schools in the survey aimed to deliver learning and teaching of a consistently high quality whilst also being flexible in responding to the needs of individuals.
Most schools used a wide range of teaching approaches, consciously adapted to meet pupils' learning needs. It was recognised that the best classroom practice should encourage active participation which included co-operation among pupils, debate and discussion, independence and choice.

Features of good practice in learning and teaching included:

  • effective direct, interactive teaching which was well paced and appropriately challenging for all pupils;
  • involvement of pupils in decisions affecting their learning;
  • the provision of experiences that encouraged initiative, independence, co-operation and creativity;
  • opportunities for pupils to learn in different ways and to exercise a degree of choice and independence in their learning;
  • approaches to learning that allowed pupils to widen their opportunities for learning, for example the use of ICT, video conferencing and other distance learning approaches;
  • recognition of the importance of building on children's own life experience in learning and teaching;
  • co-operative and team-teaching, including where appropriate, the use of social and mixed-attainment groups and the organisation of classes into flexible sets;
  • a range of approaches to class organisation, including group work across stages in special schools, early intervention strategies at the early stages of primary school and setting in curricular areas in the later stages of primary school and in S1/S2;
  • sustained communication with parents about their children's development;
  • good relationships between staff and pupils; and
  • shared responsibility among teachers and others for pastoral care and attention to the social, physical and emotional development of pupils.

3.14 The delivery of teaching and learning opportunities was planned carefully to ensure that all pupils had opportunities to develop their potential. There was a commitment to responding to unpredictable or emerging needs of individuals or groups and to reviewing the effectiveness of that response on a regular basis. There were often highly effective systems of support for pupils to address barriers to learning, including the flexible use of support for learning staff, behaviour support staff, and specialists in bilingual teaching and the teaching of English as an additional language.

3.15 In most of the schools surveyed, there were systematic arrangements for monitoring classroom practice and the responses of pupils to the teaching and learning that they experienced. A number of schools were using attainment data to monitor and evaluate the progress of pupils including those with additional support needs. Many schools were using data on attendance and exclusions to minimise the development of indiscipline, low attendance and disaffection. In secondary schools, there were close and effective working relationships between staff with responsibilities for guidance, support for learning and other special educational needs, and behaviour support. The concept of inclusion underpinned, directly or indirectly, the roles of these key staff in supporting individuals or groups of pupils to achieve their potential.

Features of good practice in support for pupils included:

  • good reception and induction arrangements for new staff and pupils;
  • well-designed systems for the early identification of needs, decisions about how to meet them, and regular reviews of progress;
  • a range of alternatives to exclusion provided within the school, or in collaboration with other agencies;
  • good relationships and regular contacts between school and external agencies in the interests of pupils;
  • well-developed systems for the guidance, pastoral care and welfare of pupils, resulting in good levels of knowledge about the needs and aspirations of individual pupils;
  • a range of additional ways of providing support outwith class times including breakfast clubs, homework and study clubs;
  • involvement of older pupils in offering support for their younger peers, through "buddying" schemes and where appropriate through helping with aspects of school work;
  • effective systems to address education for personal and social development of pupils, including very good attention to promoting pupils' personal safety, for example through drugs education and anti-bullying practices, and taking very good account of community issues which affected pupils and their families;
  • effective arrangements to support pupils in accessing the curriculum which take account of their language, cultural and particular learning needs; and
  • effective communication among teachers about the progress of individuals and groups of pupils.

In one large city primary school, the contributions of support for learning teachers and teachers of English as an additional language had been co-ordinated effectively and targeted at the early stages as part of an early intervention initiative.

Achievement and attainment

3.16 Most schools in the survey aimed to encourage high levels of attainment and achievement as a fundamental feature of social and educational inclusion. Achievement and inclusion were seen as complementary, not contradictory, concepts. The view of attainment and achievement tended to be a broad one that encompassed the development of "personality, talents, mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential" (Standards in Scotland's Schools etc. Act 2000).

3.17 In virtually all of the schools, there were sustained initiatives directed at promoting achievement and raising attainment in all aspects of the curriculum, and for all pupils. Senior managers in the schools were beginning to take advantage of increasingly sophisticated management information systems that helped them to track the progress of individuals or groups, including pupils with additional support needs. In the best practice, pupils had good opportunities to discuss, review and record their progress and achievements, and to set targets for themselves. In some of the schools there was already a measurable improvement in standards of attainment across the curriculum over a defined period. While convinced about the importance of high levels of attainment, some headteachers stressed the need to avoid a narrow approach to recognising attainment which focused entirely on national test or examination results, as this would fail to acknowledge fully the broader spectrum of individual achievement and progress.

3.18 In a number of the schools, a variety of initiatives had been undertaken to improve the attainment of specific groups of pupils. These included pupils who encountered difficulties in their learning through special educational needs, behavioural problems, specific learning difficulties, difficulties at home or fractured school attendance.
The key factors in each case were:

Features of good practice in promoting attainment and achievement included:

  • high expectations and a commitment to raising standards of attainment for all pupils;
  • an ethos within the school that recognised and celebrated achievement in its widest sense;
  • an emphasis on improving a range of core skills, including interpersonal skills, as a means of raising attainment;
  • ensuring that teachers and pupils had a clear awareness of progress made in all curricular areas and in their personal and social development, and of what they needed to do next;
  • encouragement of life skills, creativity, enterprise and positive attitudes to learning, through active participation in a wide range of experiences including outdoor activities, environmental activities, community and work experience;
  • recognition among staff that the school alone did not determine pupils' lifestyles and that the influence of parents and the community had to be harnessed through a wide range of strategies; and
  • sustained and effective strategies to involve parents as fully as possible in their children's learning and achievement.

"We hold a full-scale school show each Christmas, which involves all the children. This reinforces a sense of belonging, as we all work together, and gives many children who are not academic a chance to shine. P4-7 go on an activity week every second year, where the focus is on outdoor activities and team-building".
Primary headteacher


Some primary schools saw extra-curricular activities as a major theme in the drive to inclusion, through providing children with an added social dimension to school life and a chance of widening their life experience and encountering new successes.One primary school serving an area of multiple deprivation offered football, netball, craft, photography, cycling proficiency, and a Young Investigators Science Club in conjunction with the associated secondary. It also participated in events such as the Millennium Tapestry and a production by Scottish Opera.


In one secondary school, the headteacher's communications to parents, and the school's Standards and Quality report, demonstrated a wide knowledge of the achievements of individuals and groups of pupils in a wide range of academic, community, cultural, and sporting activities. Success in all of these fields was celebrated as a recognition of the talents and achievements of pupils and helped to boost their confidence and self-esteem.

Working with external agencies and other schools

3.19 Many of the schools had worked hard to engage with a range of other support agencies, to maximise the extent to which learning could be supported. For example, secondary school guidance staff and others met regularly with personnel from partnership agencies to share information and agree effective, integrated support for individuals.
In new community schools within the survey, common objectives had been established and common approaches to staff development, planning and evaluation initiated, to make partnerships effective across all professional groups. In the best practice, it was evident that the new community school initiative was beginning to have a positive impact on the community as a whole, through better partnership and communication, commitment to a shared vision and imaginative use of resources.
The commitment to working with the community often extended to schools that were not part of a new community school project.

"The key strength for me is that the school is not providing alone. We must provide by having others involved - parents, businesses, the local community - the real world."
Primary headteacher


In one city secondary school, there had been extensive discussion with a range of community leaders to consider racial and community issues which the school, in partnership with the community, might be able to address. School staff wanted to play a pro-active role in promoting better relations and mutual understanding between different groups within the local area. In another school, effective steps had been taken to capitalise on the rich variety of cultural backgrounds present in the school community. Spiritual and moral issues were explored through drama, music and dance, and care was taken to raise awareness of and respect for the whole range of religious beliefs and practices represented amongst the pupils and staff.

3.20 In many of the schools, effective use had been made of the opportunities provided by cluster groups and by links between associated primary and secondary schools in order to use staff resources and expertise effectively.

Features of good practice in working with other agencies included:

  • good recording and reporting at points of transfer;
  • planned opportunities for pupils to work with staff and other adults outwith the formal curriculum;
  • close links with support services within education authorities, including psychological services, support for learning services, English as an additional language staff and a range of support services for pupils with special educational needs;
  • shared clarity of purpose and good liaison between different professionals, for example social workers, teachers, community education workers, police, health service personnel and voluntary agencies;
  • effective education authority arrangements for 'staged intervention' or 'stepped referral' to provide support for pupils experiencing difficulties at school; and
  • an open, outward-looking approach towards making links with the wider community.

In one new community school project involving a secondary and five associated primaries, effective co-ordination of school development plans and priorities had been crucial. In each case, health promotion was identified as a key priority. Co-ordination of the efforts of professionals outwith the schools by the project liaison committee had been a major factor in the drive to meet the wide range of pupils' needs.

Working with parents

3.21 Almost all of the schools had made sustained efforts to communicate more effectively with parents and to develop closer partnerships with them. In one school the aims and policies of the school stated that "parents and pupils are considered to be our customers and are treated with respect at all times." In most schools, there was good information for parents about their children's progress and an encouragement for them to contact the school for information or to address matters of concern. Some imaginative approaches had been adopted to informing parents about the curriculum in a way that was informative and accessible to them. Emerging good practice in new community schools which had developed personal learning plans for their pupils included the involvement of staff with parents in regularly discussing their child's progress against the targets set in these plans.

3.22 Opportunities were sought and used to involve parents in supporting learning and to use resources in the community to promote learning. In some schools, there had been successful initiatives to encourage some parents to re-engage with the process of education themselves. These included, for example, links with community education staff, family learning centres and 'Young Mums' Units' which provided childcare facilities on schools premises.

One primary school with enhanced special educational needs (SEN) provision had used funding within a new community schools project to set up a very active parents' support group for the parents of pupils with SEN and provided a parents' room in the SEN facility. An extensive support programme of events and talks was run for parents and included contributions from a wide range of health and education professionals. Staffing was used from the new community school project to allow parents to re-engage with learning and to offer a community programme of events.

A primary school had taken sensitive steps to improve communication with parents who had difficulties with reading and writing and had been unable to access school newsletters and other communications. Procedures for explaining absence had been greatly simplified to alleviate parents' difficulties. The school also provided breakfast for pupils who might otherwise not have eaten before school and offered a wide range of after-school clubs, including French, maths, computing, writing and reading.


Features of good practice in working with parents included:

  • good home-school link arrangements to keep parents informed and involved in supporting their children's learning;
  • steps to ensure that all parents can access communication from the school, for example through translating newsletters into relevant languages and using plain English;
  • partnership programmes for parents' own continued learning; and
  • practical and accessible methods of making parents aware of what their children were learning and how they could help.

One primary school had strengthened parent involvement by producing its own videos on mathematics, focusing both on teaching and on how pupils learn in mathematics. Parents were invited to watch the videos and discuss ways in which they could help their children with their maths. Copies of the video were sent to parents unable to attend. Conscious efforts were made to keep letters and publicity materials free of jargon.

 

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