In 1988 HM Inspectors of Schools published the report 'Management of Educational Resources: Effective Secondary Schools'. It identified some of the features common to many of the schools which, through inspections over the period 1984 to 1988, were judged to be effective. The report stated: "Possibly the most important single factor in school effectiveness is the quality of teaching. Education, however, is far more than the sum of the contributions of individual teachers... It demands good leadership and sound management which have a significant effect on pupils' learning." Chapter 2 of the report focused on the characteristics of effective learning and teaching across the curriculum and drew examples from a range of subject departments.
This report on computing studies is the sixth of a series that aims to identify the features which contribute to effective learning and teaching in specific subjects. It draws from the inspection of more than 200 computing departments conducted since 1986, and from the monitoring and evaluation of developments in the teaching of computing studies.
T N GALLACHER
HM Senior Chief Inspector of Schools
1: Introduction
The first examinable courses in computing were established in a few schools in 1982. Almost all secondary schools now have computing departments offering a range of courses from 51 to 56. This report identifies the best current practice, provides attainable targets for those schools not yet reaching that standard, and identifies issues for further debate and development.
2: Computing in the Curriculum
Pupils learn with and about computers for four broad reasons: as part of their general education; to acquire vocationally relevant skills; to assist the learning of other subjects; and to assist in the development of general learning skills.
There is a debate about whether computing skills and knowledge are best acquired by specialist courses m computing studies (and specialist units in other subjects) or by cross-curricular use of computer technology. The most widely held view - shared by HM Inspectors - is that both approaches are required.
The study of computing encompasses computer systems, software applications, and programming, although the detailed content changes as technology develops.
Pupils require to develop knowledge and understanding, problem-solving and practical skills, as well as an appropriate set of attitudes and relevant learning skills.
3: Provision and Uptake in Schools
Most schools provide a course in 51 and/or S2 that introduces pupils to the basic components of a computer system and their use, the use of simple software packages, the input/process/output cycle, some of the applications of computers in industry and commerce, and elementary computer programming. Many of these courses have been revised to take account of the introduction of Standard Grade and recent changes in technology; all will need to be reconsidered in the context of the publication of the National Guidelines 5-14.
Standard Grade Computing Studies is offered in almost every school, with the total uptake now representing 30% of the age cohort. The course includes study of computer systems, commercial and industrial applications, programming and general purpose software. Pupils also undertake project work related to this content. The delivery of Standard Grade courses was revised in many schools to take account of the introduction of Higher Grade and changes in hardware and software, and the SEB also responded to these changes by introducing an amended set of Arrangements.
The uptake of the Higher Grade course has increased steadily, with over 300 schools now presenting candidates. The course continues the study of systems, general purpose software and programming begun at Standard Grade, but pupils also choose from a number of specialist options and carry out a substantial investigation.
National Certificate modules are offered from 53 to 56. Most schools offer a limited range of introductory modules; the best provision offers pupils a choice of modules suited to their previous experience and current interests.
The Certificate of Sixth Year Studies was introduced in 1992; early signs are that pupils have shown an encouraging level of interest in the course.
The major areas where curriculum developments are required are in responding to the National Guidelines 5-14, to the introduction of gSVQ awards and to any changes which are made as a consequence of the Howie report.
4: Learning and Teaching
By good planning of course outlines and regular review of detailed content, most departments ensure that necessary content is covered. It is more difficult to ensure that learning and teaching approaches promote balanced development of knowledge and understanding, problem-solving and practical abilities, of pupil attitudes and of general skills such as the ability to work independently.
Knowledge and understanding are improved when detailed content is referred to in a variety of contexts, when clear explanations are reinforced by direct experience, when pupils are required to interpret, classify and explain facts and concepts, and when they test out speculations using hardware and software. As they progress through their computer education, pupils are helped by effective teaching to develop a broader perspective, knowledge base and appreciation of underlying concepts. They also develop an awareness of the practical issues associated with the use of computers in 'real' situations.
The development of pupils' ability to solve problems using computers should be well planned, and consistent with other approaches used across the school. Initially, pupils will cope better if they are told how to tackle each problem. In time they can appreciate that a variety of approaches is possible and can develop the ability to select an appropriate problem-solving technique. Pupils' understanding of these techniques is enhanced when they see and discuss examples of effective techniques being used by computer professionals.
The practical skills which pupils require range from switching on a machine to adding new users to a network, and the acquisition of these skills should be planned. Effective teaching ensures that pupils learn the full range of skills required to be competent, independent users of computers, including the ability to find out technical information from a variety of sources and the ability to set up and use a stand-alone microcomputer system.
In addition to the development of pupils' knowledge and skills, effective teaching promotes the development of an appropriate set of attitudes. These include adherence to relevant legislation, balancing human needs and interests when developing and using computer systems, and responsible and careful use of hardware, software and data. (In each of these cases, acquisition of relevant knowledge is important, but not sufficient.)
Effective teachers ensure that pupils are given useful subject-specific advice about how to study, carry out project work and work independently.
There has been a recent transformation in the sophistication of software used by pupils at all stages, particularly from 53 onwards. Most departments are now equipped with at least one room of computers running 'industry standard' software. Most schools have a mixture of BBC computers and '16-bit' systems such as Apple Macintosh, RM Nimbus and Acorn Archimedes. Schools and computing departments need to decide whether it is still important to teach pupils how to use the general purpose software available on BBC machines.
Of all the aspects of computing courses, programming has remained the most difficult and controversial. Schools where pupils enjoy successful programming activity tend to have the following characteristics: the development of programming skills is planned from S1 to S6, programming work is done throughout courses rather than in large blocks, and there is a good balance between teaching specific techniques, making pupils consider broader issues, and setting comparatively open-ended tasks. It is helpful when programming environments minimise unnecessary technical difficulties.
In addition, effective teachers make sure that they respond adequately to the needs of different individuals and groups. Pupils in S1 will have had a variety of previous experiences, as well as having different aptitudes for the subject, and they should not have identical learning experiences in their introductory courses. Learning in Standard Grade classes has improved where pupils work with materials designed specifically for their ability level.
This focus on the needs of individual pupils should not, however, lead to pupils working entirely by themselves, and effective teachers ensure a balance between different types of teaching and learning activity. In particular, it is important for teachers to work with the whole class, small groups and individuals by giving clear expositions, leading discussions and asking well-considered questions.
Most pupils following Credit and Higher Grade courses are expected to undertake significant amounts of homework. This is valuable where it includes specific tasks that are commented on helpfully by teachers and guided private study. Departments should consider whether the discrepancy between the homework given to these classes and that expected of pupils following National Certificate modules can be justified.
In many schools, the number of girls opting for computing studies courses, especially at Higher Grade, is well below the number of boys, although this difference has reduced somewhat in recent years. A number of possible causes have been identified and those responsible for the subject need to consider what action might be taken.
Good computing studies departments ensure that they obtain and report appropriate evidence of pupil attainment, make use of assessment evidence when planning and delivering their teaching, and have effective mechanisms for ensuring high standards of assessment practice in each class. The quality of assessment practice has improved significantly, but a number of schools should improve the quality of the evidence of practical abilities which they submit to SEB. Teachers should ensure that they provide useful feedback to pupils about their performance as they progress through courses.
The effectiveness of the learning approaches described above can be judged on the basis of pupil attitude, the quality of their classwork, and the number and level of certificates obtained.
Pupils are generally well motivated by computing studies and they behave well in class. Relationships with staff are usually characterised by respect, humour, courtesy and friendliness. Staff and pupils are punctual and hardworking. Property is well cared for by pupils. Staff have a high level of awareness and understanding of individual pupils.
High standards of technical competence were observed in most schools. There was, however, a tendency for some pupils to be less certain when they were asked to explain what was happening, or predict the effect of a suggested action.
The number of pupils gaming each of the Grades 1-6 at Standard / Ordinary Grade has increased substantially since 1988, while the proportion gaining Grade 7 or No Award has fallen to levels below that of many other subjects. At Higher Grade, while the numbers gaining Grades A-C have increased steadily, it is a matter of some concern that the proportion failing to gain at least Grade C has remained over 40%. Computing Studies is one of the 'difficult' subjects, although it is not yet clear whether this is caused by the relative inexperience of the teaching force, the intrinsic difficulty of the subject, the standards set by examiners and markers, or a combination of all three.
5: Staffing and Resourcing for Effective Learning and Teaching
Most schools have two or three specialist computing laboratories, each equipped with up to 20 computer systems usually as part of a local area network. The best rooms are those which enable teachers to see all screens easily, and provide adequate desk space beside the machines for notes and manuals as well as an area away from the machines for written work and class discussion.
A substantial volume of teaching materials was produced nationally in support of both Standard and Higher Grade courses. These were distributed to all schools, and teachers made extensive initial use of them, selectively adapting and replacing them as they gained experience of teaching the courses. Most schools have acquired class sets of a small number of textbooks, supplemented with single copies of a large number of other reference and text books.
A new generation of hardware, usually based on Apple Macintosh, RM Nimbus or Acorn Archimedes, has been introduced into most schools. Until recently, the use of more than one type of machine was often regarded as problematic because of issues related to maintenance, familiarity and software compatibility. In most schools, these problems are now seen as being less important and, within reason, the advantages of diversity are thought to outweigh the disadvantages. Networks are available in most classrooms and often form part of a wider department or school network.
Most schools now have an adequate provision of software, much of it of high quality and representing current 'industry standards'. It includes: word-processing, database, spreadsheet, graphics and facilities to integrate these; simulations of computer applications including control and communications; and programming languages.
The number of teachers qualified to teach computing had risen to 798 by 1990, and, on average, 30 hours of computing studies per week was taught in each secondary school. (Both of these figures will have increased since then, but data for 1992 is not yet available). In 1990, 27% of computing was taught by teachers without subject qualifications. This figure has been steadily reducing, and it is hoped that this trend continues.
Being involved in a new subject, computing studies teachers have had to develop a set of appropriate teaching approaches which meet subject specific needs and to develop an understanding of what is required in each of the new courses that have been created. The subject matter itself has changed rapidly as technology has advanced. General educational issues affect computing studies departments as much as any other. Computing studies teachers are often expected to contribute to the technical training of colleagues. Because of these factors, staff development has played a substantial part in the recent work of computing studies teachers and of those employed to support them in education authorities, teacher training institutions and nationally. Teachers have found staff development activity useful where it has been designed to meet identified individual needs.
The quality of technical support now available to schools has improved considerably, being most effective in those schools that have a trained technician available to deal with day-to-day matters and ready access to more specialised technical support as required.
6: Management
Most schools now have a teacher with clear responsibility for computing studies, and one or more additional teachers whose main work is the teaching of the subject. The leadership provided by the head of department is most effective where it is actively supported by the headteacher. It is important that the scope of the computing teachers' remit to deal with whole-school computing matters is clearly defined and realistic.
Most departments have established sets of aims and clear course outlines. Many need to supplement these with clear statements of policy on matters such as the development of problem-solving skills, homework, dealing with individual needs, and the assessment of practical skills.
The range of courses provided in most schools covers most pupils' needs, although there are gaps in provision, usually in areas where these needs could be met by short courses. Sometimes these gaps are deliberate because of lack of staffing or resources, because it has been decided to introduce these courses at a later date, or because of broader curriculum considerations.
Resources have been built up as courses have developed, and most schools have effective procedures that ensure that hardware and software are readily available and operational. Schools and authorities have recognised the need for maintenance and upgrading of this stock, although it is not clear what the long-term cost of this is likely to be.
Teachers in most computing departments have valuable contacts with many colleagues in other schools, and with local authority and teacher training institution staff. They also need to ensure that they have sufficient contact with the wider community of computer users and professionals to maintain their knowledge of current applications, and with local primary schools to ensure continuity of experience for pupils coming to their schools.
Effective departments use a variety of techniques to ensure that they are aware of the quality of provision that they are making. These should not be too time-consuming, but should be regular, should form part of the overall school self-evaluation procedures and should lead to the formulation and implementation of a set of realistic plans designed to address key issues that have been identified.
7: Issues
The evaluation of current provision summarised above raises a number of issues. Some of these are specific matters that need to be addressed at this stage in the development of the subject, but most are of longer-term relevance and should be regularly reviewed by schools and others involved in supporting the teaching of computing studies. Those responsible for provision are encouraged to address a number of questions listed under each of the following evaluation headings:
1.1 Computing studies has developed from being a subject restricted to a very few pupils in some schools to the state where most secondary schools offer courses to pupils of all abilities at all stages. This change has occurred since 1982, in parallel with the growth of computing and information technology throughout society. It has involved the training of large numbers of teachers, the introduction of new courses, the development and acquisition of hardware and software, and the production of entire sets of teaching materials. At the same time, teachers have gained experience of teaching with and about computers, and have developed views about the content and delivery of courses. There is still considerable debate about the computing curriculum and the associated teaching methodology, because of continuing rapid changes in the underlying technology and its applications, because all computing studies courses are still relatively new, and because much of the learning about computers can take place within the teaching of other subjects.
1.2 The purpose of this report is threefold: to identify and give credit for current good practice; to provide attainable targets for schools not yet reaching that standard; and to identify issues for further debate and development in order to ensure that standards continue to improve.
1.3 Chapters 2 and 3 provide a context for this discussion: identifying aims and objectives of computing studies as a subject, its place in the curriculum and the range and uptake of courses currently being provided in schools. Against this background, Chapter 4 examines aspects of teaching and learning which are particularly relevant to computing studies, including specific issues such as the teaching of programming and more general issues such as the development of problem-solving skills and responding to the needs of individuals. In order to deliver high quality teaching across all of these courses, there must be adequate numbers of well-trained teachers, with technical support, physical resources and good management. Chapters 5 and 6 assess the current state of the resourcing and management of the subject. Finally, Chapter 7 identifies a number of issues that will need to be addressed by teachers, schools, authorities, and national bodies. if improvement in the quality of provision is to be assured.
Pupils learn with and about computers for a number of reasons, and there are several ways of delivering this part of their education. Computing studies makes a key contribution to this learning, and courses have been developed for all stages of the secondary school to help pupils develop relevant knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes.
Individual Learning Needs
2.1 Secondary school pupils have four broad reasons for learning with and about computers:
Few recent developments have had such a widespread impact as those related to modem computer systems and their associated technologies; computing and its applications now permeate the lives of most individuals at work, at leisure, and in the home. As part of their general education, therefore, pupils need some knowledge and understanding of computers and their applications, and a number of associated practical skills. This study of computer technology also contributes to the pupils` more general understanding of technology and to the development of general technological skills.
Labour market surveys over the past few years have consistently identified a shortage of people with skills in the use and application of computers (the 'Information Technology (IT) Skills Gap'). These include not only people with high levels of qualification in computing-related disciplines who are required to undertake development and implementation work, but also a much larger number of people with sufficient competence and confidence to enable them to apply computing technology in the workplace.
In schools, computer systems can contribute to the learning in all subjects. This can take a number of forms, including computer-based learning, the use of simulations, and control technology, enabling access to sources of information (such as library databases), and the use of general purpose software such as word-processing and spreadsheet packages.
The development of some learning skills can be assisted by learning with and about computers: for example, the ability to solve problems and the ability to learn independently.
2.2 In discussions about how to meet these learning needs, three different terms are widely used: computing, information technology and computing studies. These are not always used with precisely the same meaning but in this report they are defined as follows:
The study and use of computer-based technologies. In schools this includes the subject of computing studies, learning about computers in other subjects, and using computers to support teaching and learning across the curriculum. In addition to being used directly in these ways to meet pupils' learning needs, computers are also used in materials development, assessment and reporting, and in school and departmental administration and management, but these purposes are outside the scope of this report.
The use of a range of computer-based and other technologies to generate, capture, process, store and communicate information. As an educational and administrative tool, IT is of considerable value in schools. While there is no rigid definition of its scope, IT is usually taken to include a wide range of technologies such as fax, video, teletext, viewdata, telephone and photocopying as well as `conventional' computer systems. The study of IT focuses on how these various technologies are used to meet human information needs, and is less concerned with developing an understanding of the technical features of the hardware and software. It is an element of the curriculum to which the subject of computing studies can make a major contribution.
A distinct subject that involves the study of computers and computer-based technologies, in order to develop knowledge and understanding of computing facts and concepts, associated practical and problem-solving abilities, and appropriate attitudes towards the use of computer technology. There is a large overlap between computing studies and the study of IT, but there are two significant differences: computing studies includes the study of how the hardware and software work as well as how they are applied; and the study of IT covers technologies such as fax or telephone which are not normally considered in any depth in computing studies courses.
The Aims of Computing in Secondary Schools
2.3 Most schools recognise the range of learning needs identified above and have a set of associated aims for computing which are broadly similar to the following:
Teaching about Computers and Teaching with Computers
2.4 Two distinct categories of learning activities are used to meet these aims: the specialist study of aspects of computing and information technology; and the use of computer systems (and other forms of IT) to support learning. There has been, and still is, vigorous debate about the extent to which each of these categories is necessary and useful. Two distinct viewpoints are held. The first is that most pupils.' learning needs related to computers can be met by a carefully planned use of computers and other forms of IT to support learning across the curriculum. The second is that these learning needs should be met by a combination of specialist study of computers/IT and cross-curricular use of computers/IT.
2.5 The view that the distinct study of computing is unnecessary for all pupils except those with specific vocational interests can be justified on two grounds. One is the argument that the computer-related knowledge, understanding and skins which most people need are relatively simple and will be successfully learnt by exposure to the technology. This argument has been strengthened recently by the introduction of computer systems that are very easy to use; it has been weakened simultaneously by the increased complexity of the computer applications that are used in a wide variety of contexts and the increasing number of individuals who make use of these applications in work, education and leisure. The net effect of these recent changes is that individuals may need to learn less about basic hardware technology, but more about the nature of information and how it can be processed. The other main argument against the study of computing as a subject is that it is possible, and preferable, to plan for all the necessary knowledge and skills to be taught in the context of using computers to support learning across the curriculum. This argument has long been popular, partly because it implies that computer applications will be seen by pupils to be relevant because they are used in context, and partly because resources and staff currently devoted to the teaching of computing could be used to support learning across the curriculum. This approach seems attractive but has proved almost impossible to deliver successfully in secondary schools, principally because the level of co-ordination that would be required among teachers of different subjects is more complex than can normally be sustained across a school.
2.6 The second approach - a combination of specialist teaching and cross-curricular applications - is usually justified on the grounds that specialist teaching makes it easier to ensure that necessary concepts, skills and content are taught to pupils in a coherent and progressive way by teachers who understand the overall structure and content of the subject matter, and have a high level of technical knowledge. The complementary use of computers and IT to support learning across the curriculum enriches the pupils` overall experience of computing as well as providing support for learning in other subjects.
2.7 A third approach is possible, where there is a strong emphasis on the teaching of computing but only limited use of computers to support learning across the curriculum. This approach is rarely advocated, but in conversation with HM Inspectors, many individual pupils still describe their own experience of computing in secondary school in these terms.
2.8 Most of those involved in managing and teaching computing in secondary schools have come to regard the second approach as the most effective way of meeting pupils.' needs, and this view is endorsed by HM Inspectors. In implementing this approach, most schools use the following combination:
2.9 This implies that much of the teaching about computers is undertaken by the computing studies department. However, there are some aspects of computing which are strongly associated with other subject areas and may be best delivered by the relevant departments. For example, pupils learn about certain uses of computer technology in business subjects and may consider, in social education, the implications of using computers to store personal data. In some subjects, such as business or technological studies, aspects of computing are now studied as part of the formal examination curriculum. The use of computers in other subjects (word-processing in English, control technology in science, or databases in history) will lead to an increased understanding of computing. In many schools, the specialist teaching of computer-related topics in the S1 / S2 common course is delivered by more than one department: for example, business studies may teach keyboarding, computing studies the use of computer applications, and the technical department the use of computers to control robotics devices. aspects of data-handling such as the use of databases and spreadsheets are included in the National Guidelines 5-14 for mathematics and are sometimes taught in S1 / S2 by planned cooperation between computing and mathematics departments.
2.10 The use of computers to support learning in other subjects was the subject of the HM Inspectors' report 'Learning and Teaching in Scottish Secondary Schools: the Use of Microcomputers', published in 1987, and since then the use of computers and other forms of information technology in a wide range of subjects has increased substantially, although the extent to which individual pupils have experience of such use across the curriculum still varies considerably. This cross-curricular use provides pupils with additional practical experience and relevant contexts for information technology, both of which enhance their computing education. Equally significant, however, is the general attitude to computing and IT that pervades the school. Where the use of computers across subjects is regarded as a natural and positive component of teaching and learning, and where teachers and support staff make regular use of computers for a variety of purposes, pupils are more likely to use computers as and when these are appropriate and be motivated to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills. Typically in such schools, for example, word-processing software is used by pupils to generate project reports, databases are available and well used in library/ resource centres, and pupils expect to use computers regularly in mathematics.
2.11 All departments in a secondary school have a contribution to make to realising the school's aims for computing. This report now concentrates its attention on the specific contribution made to pupils' education by specialist teaching about computing, and in particular by the subject of computing studies.
Scope of Pupils' Learning about Computers
2.12 Pupils should acquire knowledge and skills across a range of aspects of computing. Broadly, these can be categorised as computer systems, software applications and computer programming, although the balance among these varies with individual pupils' interests and stage of development. For courses in S1/ S2, schools define the detailed content for themselves, although this is now strongly influenced by the National Guidelines 5-14. For examination courses, the content to be covered is specified in SEB Arrangements which define the content which candidates are expected to know and understand; and in SCOT'VEC module descriptors which provide an indication of the content and context in which competences should be developed. The detailed factual knowledge which pupils are expected to acquire in the study of a rapidly developing technology such as computing should not be defined rigidly, and teachers and examiners have to adopt a sensible approach when deciding what is currently relevant to courses at a particular level. For example, whereas five years ago pupils at Standard Grade were expected to know about daisy wheel printers and cassette tape back-up systems, it is now more appropriate for them to know about laser and ink jet printers and CD-ROM storage devices. Courses have to be defined and adjusted in ways that enable their detailed content to remain relevant to current technology.
Computer systems
2.13 The study of computer systems concerns the purpose, functioning and interrelationship of different hardware and software components. In this context, `software' includes that which manages the computer system: the operating system, the graphical user interface, and related network and communication software. The depth and breadth of this study vary considerably between courses. In an introductory course, pupils need only to be able to use standard computer systems, to run a range of common software, and to understand and respond to common situations. At Higher Grade, in contrast, pupils need to understand, for example, how data are represented within and transferred between devices.
Software applications
2.14 The software applications which are studied include those such as word-processing, database and spreadsheet packages that can be used in a wide range of contexts, and others designed for a specific purpose such as controlling robots, managing stock control in a supermarket, or developing sets of teletext pages. The distinction between these two categories is not hard and fast, and there is an additional categorisation that is perhaps more important for pupils to appreciate - between a software package (such as an expert systems shell) which may have a wide range of applications and the particular data set which may have been developed for one specific application (such as a knowledge base run in that shell). Pupils start their computer education by learning how to use some applications. They then progress to learning something of how software is used outside school and of the interaction between software (such as how to transfer data from one package to another), and to considering implications for individuals of the use of various types of software. By Higher Grade, pupils will be dealing with topics such as the stimulus that provoked the development of different software types, the extent to which features are common to software types, and how understanding of the interaction between humans and machines influences software design. As well as the SEB courses where a range of applications is studied, there are a number of SCOTVEC modules, each of which deals with a single software type.
Programming
2.15 The emphasis on programming was strong in many early computing courses, partly because these courses were seen as a preparation for more academic study, but also because of the high level of pupil and staff interest in this aspect of the subject, and because programming skills were required by a large number of microcomputer users. While this emphasis has decreased, particularly at the early stages of secondary education, as the focus has shifted more towards studying applications, there are still several reasons why programming is taught at all levels in secondary schools. Writing and running simple programs allows pupils to control and hence to understand how the computer can manipulate information. By developing programming skills, pupils gain experience of solving problems where they can readily see, evaluate and amend their solutions. Programming skills are required to use some of the relatively new features of general purpose software such as spreadsheet macros. Many pupils, particularly those who wish to undertake academic study of the subject after they leave school, have an interest in developing programming skills.
2.16 Typically, introductory courses include the use of simple programs such as one where pupils program a dockside crane to load crates onto a ship, or turtle graphics packages where pupils program a screen `turtle' to trace out a path. At Standard Grade, pupils learn some general programming techniques and some features of a high level language -COMAL is the most popular at present - in the context of programming as a problem-solving activity, and learn how to write reports on these programming tasks. In the Higher Grade course, the range of techniques and language features increases as does the sophistication of the formal reporting and evaluation by pupils of their work. Many pupils also study a second language at this stage (usually Pascal or PROLOG). Those who take the CSYS course can choose to undertake a detailed study of the software development process.
2.17 Pupil progress in these different aspects of computing does not, however, consist merely of learning about an increasing range and complexity of content. There should also be opportunities for pupils to make progress in developing:
2.18 The following extracts from statements of aims for a number of existing courses illustrate how progression is defined, at least in very broad terms, for two of these areas:
Knowledge and understanding
Problem-solving skills
2.19 While there are no formal definitions of these aspects of progression, the way they are usually interpreted in computing studies courses is as follows.
Knowledge and Understanding
2.20 As a prerequisite to developing the full range of computing abilities, pupils need a strong base of knowledge and understanding. The scope of this knowledge base is described in general terms above, and prescribed in detail by examination bodies. It is, of course, not sufficient for pupils just to acquire and remember detailed factual information. They should also develop an understanding of this information which enables them to make effective use of it. This developing understanding will be demonstrated when pupils can classify information, explain the meaning of concepts, and understand the reasoning behind decisions. They should be able to answer questions beginning with 'why' and 'how.', not just those beginning with 'what'. They should develop the ability to make comparisons, draw conclusions and form judgements. For example, pupils in an S1/S2 class might - depending on the detailed course which they had followed - be able to explain how to log on to their computer network, or describe several applications of computers in the manufacture of motor cars; those working at Standard Grade General level should be able to explain how to use a database of library loans to list overdue books and describe the essential differences between types of printers; and at Higher Grade, candidates should be able to explain the technical details of how an external device can interrupt the operation of a computer in an emergency, compare different categories of software by contrasting the range of data-handling operations that they can perform, and justify their choice of a particular type of software integration in a given context.
Practical Skills
2.21 Associated with each computing course is a set of practical skills which pupils should acquire, either because they are formally defined as part of the course or because they are needed to undertake practical coursework. Depending on the level of the course, these skills can include using a keyboard at a rudimentary level, operating devices such as printers, managing computer files, using software packages, producing code in a programming language, and using networks. To these may be added a series of complementary skills such as the ability to use reference manuals, describe and discuss problems and produce helpful documentation. The possession of all of these skills enables pupils to use computers confidently and correctly in a variety of subjects and contexts. In particular, secure possession of these skills and the underlying concepts helps pupils when they have to use unfamiliar computers in other subjects, tertiary education, employment or their personal life.
Problem-Solving
2.22 The uses of computers to undertake tasks can be thought of as falling into two categories: those where it is clear from the outset what is to be done and how to do it and those where decisions have to be made about the nature of the task and/or the best way to tackle it. Problem-solving skills are those which are needed to undertake the second type of task. There is no universally accepted definition of what `problem-solving' is, but perhaps the most widely held view is that it involves: analysing the nature of a 'problem, which may be defined as a novel situation requiring action; identifying possible strategies; developing and, where possible implementing a solution; and evaluating that solution. There are several different ways of tackling problems, some of which are preferred by individuals, and some of which are more suitable in certain circumstances. One indicator of an individual's problem-solving abilities is the range of such strategies that they can deploy.
2.23 It order to decide whether a particular task constitutes a 'problem', it is necessary to consider it from the perspective of the individual, since what is a novel situation for one individual - and hence one that gives rise to a 'problem' - may be quite familiar to someone else - and simply require recall of what will provide a suitable solution. One feature of good problem-solving is the ability to recognise one situation as analogous to another where the solution is known, and the importance of this ability should not be underestimated.
2.24 While the context for most of the problem-solving activity in computing courses will result in the use of a computer to undertake the required task, and most pupils will therefore assume that this is always the case, the best problem-solvers will recognise situations where a solution that does not use a computer will be more appropriate.
2.25 Ideally, solutions to problems can be implemented in the classroom and this is possible where the necessary hardware and software are available and pupils have the technical knowledge and the time to develop and implement detailed solutions. Developing a booking system for a sports centre using a spreadsheet is one such problem that has been used as a Standard Grade project. Other problems are within the scope of computing studies courses, but cannot realistically be solved in the classroom. For example, pupils may develop proposed solutions to a communications problem involving the international transfer of large amounts of data, without being able to implement their solution. In such cases, they will be able to undertake only some aspects of the problem-solving process.
2.26 The reason for teaching problem-solving techniques in computing studies courses is to help pupils develop useful computing techniques and general problem-solving abilities. In this respect, computing studies is similar to other subjects in which problem-solving contributes to the realisation of both general and subject specific objectives. There are continuing discussions about the extent to which the teaching of problem-solving skills can and should be co-ordinated across subjects, and a related question is whether pupils can transfer problem-solving skills learnt in one subject to others. Computing studies teachers need to be involved in school discussions of these issues to ensure that their strategies are compatible with those of other departments in the school.
Attitudes
2.27 As a result of their contact with computers inside and outside the school, pupils will develop a set of attitudes to computing, relating to individuals, resources, applications and legal issues. Appropriate attitudes towards computing which can be developed in computing studies courses include: having a positive and confident attitude to the use of computer systems; respecting confidentiality and privacy of data; encouraging equality of access to information systems; treating hardware and software with care; minimising the consumption of resources such as paper; having responsible attitudes to aspects of health and safety; respecting copyright; appreciating, and helping to alleviate, the legitimate concerns and comparative ignorance which others may have about specific computer applications; and recognising that there are occasions where a computer solution to a problem may have negative as well as positive effects.
General Learning Skills
2.28 The computing studies courses currently provided in schools usually aim to develop a range of general learning skills as well as specific technical knowledge and competences. Thus, for example, the Standard Grade course explicitly assesses pupils` problem-solving abilities, the Higher Grade requires pupils to undertake and write up a substantial investigation, and the new CSYS course involves pupils in considerable private research. The Scottish Consultative Council on the Curriculum document, 'Curriculum Design for the Secondary Stages', indicates that activities in the Technological Applications and Activities Mode should "promote the development of technological capability through the processes of designing, making and evaluating the effectiveness of systems or artefacts; these experiences provide opportunities for the acquisition and application of knowledge, practical skills and the generic skills of problem-solving, co-operation and enterprise". It recognises that computing studies is a suitable vehicle for the acquisition of these skills.
Conclusion
2.29 This chapter has identified and discussed the range of pupil learning needs related to computing, the general aims and scope of teaching about computers, and broad strategies for meeting these aims. Each of these areas has given rise to healthy debate since computers were first introduced into schools, and there are no signs that this will diminish, because these discussions are about fundamental issues and principles, which are likely to remain relevant, and probably contentious, for the foreseeable future. What has changed substantially over recent years, and is likely to change in the future, is the context for these discussions, in terms of the level of teacher experience in the subject, the sophistication and availability of computer technology, and the general curriculum framework in secondary schools. Subsequent chapters consider the range and quality of existing provision, and identify issues that will need to be addressed as part of the process of adapting and improving that provision.