The learning and teaching provided in computing studies is most effective when two conditions are met. Firstly, what is taught and learnt must be appropriate to the overall aims of the course. Secondly, teaching and learning methods should be selected which are most likely to lead to successful learning. Evidence of the effectiveness of pupils' learning experiences can be seen in their attitude to the subject, the quality' of their classwork, and the number and level of formal qualifications obtained by them. This chapter examines the characteristics of learning and teaching found in effective computing studies classes.
The Appropriateness of What is Taught.
4.1 In chapter 2, consideration of the place of computing studies in the curriculum resulted in the identification of a number of broad areas of content, and the contribution of particular courses to each of these was described in chapter 3. By good planning and regular review of courses, most departments ensure that necessary content is covered, especially in SEB courses. It is more difficult, however, to ensure that the learning and teaching approaches that are used provide for balanced development of knowledge and understanding, problem-solving, practical skills, attitudes and general learning skills. The learning and teaching methods that seem to be particularly effective in developing these are considered below.
Knowledge and Understanding
4.2 Pupils need to be able to recall detailed factual information, classify, explain, understand and produce reasoned arguments across the range of content and at the level of sophistication specified for each course. In order that they can work confidently with content in this way, they need to be thoroughly familiar with it. Understanding and retention of facts or concepts are improved when, following an initial introduction that clearly identifies what is important, this detailed content is referred to later in the course in a variety of contexts. Thus, pupils might consider the hardware and software components of computer networks as they are set up in the computer department in the `computer systems' part of the course; as they are used in the school office and in commercial offices when considering software integration; and in the context of a design office when they discuss computer-aided design as one of the industrial applications of computers. Variety of activity is also useful, partly because this maintains interest, but also because it encourages different types of thought and hence perspectives on the content. Thus, for example, pupils' learning is enhanced when they are asked to find out information in different ways: by reading technical manuals or computer magazines, by using reference books, applications or `on-line help' facilities now provided as part of many software packages, by interrogating databases, and by talking and listening to computer users.
4.3 Clear explanations by the teacher, and a good range of text books, videos and other indirect sources of information are used to provide information in a well structured way or when it is not available through first hand experience. Where possible, however, schools arrange for pupils to learn new information by direct experience of the context: for example, by using equipment, visiting the school library or office, through work experience, or by visiting or talking to external users. In one school, for instance:
"All fourth year pupils had been on work experience for a week, to a variety of working environments (most of the placements did not have a specific computing focus). On their return, the computing teachers asked each pupil to describe to their Standard Grade class the uses of computers that they had seen during the work experience and to evaluate these uses. Every pupil provided at least some information to the class - and most had identified significant issues related to the various applications that they had seen."
4.4 Understanding is promoted when pupils are asked to interpret, explain or classify information. For example, when pupils write a program, the production of good quality `user notes' is often required, partly because this is good programming practice, but also because in order to produce them the pupil needs to understand the software fully. Similarly, by asking a Higher Grade pupil to write a clear explanation of how computers can be `interrupted' by external events, teachers force them to think through the various technical issues involved. Such tasks are much more effective when they cannot be answered merely by copying text from a book, but require the extraction, summary or amalgamation of information from one or more source.
4.5 Understanding also develops when pupils are asked to: formulate and test hypotheses; speculate about causes, reasons and motives; predict effects, consequences and outcomes; reflect on issues; make comparisons; produce generalisations; and draw conclusions. The practical nature of computing studies, and the ready access to high-powered hardware and software, make it relatively easy to set up situations where pupils can test - and hence improve - their predictions and hypotheses about detailed technical issues. It is more difficult for pupils to test whether their speculations about human motivation and concerns are accurate. Pupils' understanding of the human issues related to computing is often rather naive compared with their technical understanding. Effective teachers devote careful attention to this aspect and take opportunities to talk about human issues when they arise, and ask pupils to discuss issues, undertake role play and consider implications.
4.6 In the early stages, many of the computer applications which pupils are able to develop or use are relatively trivial and they do not yet have the knowledge or maturity to appreciate how these applications relate to those used in 'real' situations. As they progress, however, pupils develop a broader perspective, knowledge base and appreciation of underlying concepts, and are able to identify the real issues involved. Effective teachers look for - and challenge - examples of pupils' thinking which appear simplistic, unrealistic or vague. For example, Standard Grade Pupils are discouraged from defending the use of an application on the grounds that it is 'quicker and easier', while in the Software Development option in the CSYS course pupils will not be allowed to focus on the specification of a `user-friendly interface' if they have not properly analysed the database structure that is required to deliver the information needed by the user.
4.7 Explaining, classifying and following reasoning are abilities that can be developed, and good computing teachers contribute to that process. Thus, a teacher may provide a Standard Grade class with a set of key features to be considered when giving an explanation, or may discuss with a Higher Grade class how to tackle the process of classifying software features.
Problem-Solving
4.8 Problem-solving can be undertaken in the context of using a generic software package, a high-level language or the system commands of the computer. Problems can be highly complex, such as 'How can you manage an air traffic control system?' or very simple e.g. 'How can you get this word processor to alter the line length?'
4.9 Teachers of computing have three complementary objectives when teaching problem-solving techniques to pupils: firstly, that pupils can solve problems in a number of specific computing contexts; secondly, that they develop general skills which they can use to solve problems in any computing context; and thirdly, that they develop effective general problem-solving strategies that can be used across subjects and outside school. The third of these implies that there is a consistent approach to the development of problem-solving skills across subjects, and this involves at least an awareness by computing teachers of the language of problem-solving used by other subject areas and, preferably, of their broad approach to the development of problem-solving skills.
4.10 Several of the techniques described in the previous section contribute to the development of problem-solving abilities as well as to the pupils' knowledge and understanding of the content. For example, when pupils test a hypothesis about the effect of a particular command, they may be designing and using test data, and evaluating and reporting on the outcome, each of which are problem-solving skills. Conversely, by using a range of contexts when setting problem-solving tasks, teachers contribute to the reinforcement of knowledge and understanding.
4.11 Most pupils can understand quite readily that there are several stages to go through when they are set a 'problem.', but need experience of applying these across different aspects of the subject before they can internalise and generalise the approaches and use them in different contexts. For example, pupils may know in principle that they need to test a solution to a problem, but will need to have considerable experience of using different testing techniques before they can competently test a database, a program to calculate a set of averages, a printer network, a modem and a booking system.
4.12 Initially, pupils will cope better if they are told clearly how to tackle each problem. As they become more experienced, however, they can begin to appreciate that there is more than one approach to problem-solving. By the time they are studying at Higher Grade or CSYS, pupils can appreciate the differences - in terms of the problem-solving strategies used - between: writing a program after detailed analysis and planning; exploring the nature of a knowledge base by experimenting with rules and facts; and developing, and refining, a manual technique for data entry into a set of linked spreadsheets and then producing an equivalent set of macros to automate the process. In each case, pupils are `solving a problem' but the techniques used are very different. It is important that pupils, especially those working at an advanced level, have experience of such a range of approaches, and are encouraged to see these as a range of options rather than to see one approach as 'correct'.
4.13 Pupils' understanding of problem-solving techniques is enhanced when they see good examples of problem-solving. In particular, the process of analysing problems and identifying possible strategies for solving them is difficult, and it is helpful to take pupils through these processes before asking them to analyse a complex situation without teacher assistance. In learning programming, for example, there is research evidence which suggests that pupils learn more effectively when their own practical work is complemented by reading commentaries written by 'good' programmers about how they tackled specific programming tasks. (These commentaries describe the process of developing the program, not merely the structure of the final product.)
4.14 Teachers organise classes in a number of ways to promote effective learning from problem-solving exercises. Some teachers encourage a class or group discussion on the specification of the problem in order to explore which assumptions have to be made about the problem. When a solution to a problem is obtained by a pupil or a group of pupils, the best teachers help them to evaluate the solution in a careful and sensitive way, taking care to balance the need for rigorous evaluation against the need to avoid discouraging pupils whose first attempts at solutions are poor. This approach is likely to build the confidence of pupils and encourage them to evaluate their solutions objectively.
Practical skills
4.15 The practical skills which pupils require range from basic machine operations (such as switching on, or controlling, a mouse) through to complex activities such as adding new workstations, users or software packages to a network. Pupils need to generalise these practical skills so that they can be applied in a wider range of situations than have been met in class.
4.16 In order that these skills are acquired in a coherent and progressive manner, effective departments plan the practical work of pupils from S1 onwards. For example, in one school:
"The S1/S2 course begins with an introduction to the use of the computer network as a logical extension to pupils' prior experience of using a standalone system in their primary schools."
Effective teaching of practical skills involves not only the planned introduction of all the necessary techniques but also a ready response to the need or opportunity for specific skills to be learnt as they arise in context.
4.17 Perhaps the most important practical skill that any computer user needs is the ability to find out how to do something.'Context sensitive help' facilities provide suggestions and information to users based on what the user was doing when the help was invoked - but the "help' facility may have `misunderstood' what the user was trying to do. An index of commands and functions is helpful to an experienced user who knows what word(s) to look for, but may not help someone who does not know the technical name for what they are trying to do. Trial and error can be an effective method of finding out, but may have unexpected and unwelcome technical consequences. Replicating a technique used in a different context is often effective, especially given the similarities between many software packages, but the user also needs to have techniques for efficient searching of the possibilities when the `obvious' approach does not work. The tutorial programs supplied together with many packages provide a step-by-step approach to using the software, but are often very time-consuming for the experienced user who wants to find out specific features of a piece of software. Asking the teacher - or discussing with fellow pupils - is often a good way of clarifying what the problem is, and may be the quickest way of finding out, but pupils need to learn how to work independently as well as co-operatively. As with other aspects of computing, there is no single correct method and teachers increasingly plan activities for pupils that give them access to 'help' facilities in several formats.
4.18 Where specific practical techniques are to be introduced, teachers usually arrange for pupils to observe and then to carry out the technique with full step-by-step instructions. Effective teachers then plan opportunities to repeat the task several times in the near future - usually with decreasing levels of support - to provide consolidation. In many cases, especially when using modern software, it is possible to present the pupil with a situation where only one new skill needs to be addressed. Thus, selecting a printer driver, deleting a file, or entering text into a stationery document can all be learnt easily once the user is able to open and move files and directories / folders in a system with a 'graphical user interface'. Where only one new skill is being used, it is easier for the learner to identify and resolve any problems that may arise.
4.19 It is important that pupils develop safe working practices, and that they do not damage the hardware, software or data they are using. Clear rules about practical behaviour are established in all well-organised computer rooms, with pupils being made aware of the reasons for such rules so that they can develop safe and secure working practices for computer use outside the computer room.
4.20 The practical tasks which individual computer users need to be able to undertake vary considerably, and are constantly changing, but most people would expect someone with a reasonable background in the subject to be able to set up and use a stand-alone microcomputer system. This implies that pupils are taught how to take a system out of its box and connect the components together, install applications software, set up directories or folders, use utilities such as virus detection, file transfer and `screen saver' software, and track down and resolve simple faults. While few would deny that these skills are relevant, it is not always easy to arrange for pupils to have the relevant experience: the number of pupils is much greater than the number of new machines that need set up, software is installed once only, and the use of a network may mean that printers are not connected directly to individual computer systems and that it is not desirable to introduce deliberate faults into the system. It is important, however, that pupils - especially those who intend to undertake further study of computing - acquire the confidence to tackle these types of practical task This does not just include learning how to tackle specific, complex tasks in a variety of circumstances; it also involves becoming aware of general issues such as the importance of setting up systems so that the users are comfortable - and points of detail such as knowing that cables can (usually) only be connected into the 'correct' socket. In one school:
"Pupils were given, as part of their introductory course, a task that provided a realistic experience of connecting together a computer system. All the components and cables had been disconnected before the class arrived, and pupils were asked to reconnect the system. As an added complication, some additional unnecessary cables were provided."
Relationship between Knowledge and Understanding, Problem-Solving and Practical Abilities
4.21 In addition to promoting the acquisition of practical skills, computers are used to illustrate features of computer systems theory, demonstrate different types of computer software or enable the practical implementation of solutions to problems. Thus, pupils acquire practical skills by direct teaching or while working on other aspects of the computing studies course. Effective teachers provide learning experiences that integrate theoretical and practical learning objectives. Thus, in teaching word-processing or databases, they might discuss issues of memory and system limitations in the context of problems which arose during the execution of practical tasks. The best teaching helps pupils to learn by a judicious mixture of problem-solving, provision of factual information, and practical work.
Attitudes
4.22 Well-planned courses ensure that the various attitudes identified in Chapter 2 are developed in parallel with other aspects of the course. In some cases, there is little doubt about what these `attitudes` ought to be. For example, no responsible teacher would tell pupils that it was acceptable to make or use illegal copies of software, to break the conditions of the Data Protection Act, or to use equipment without due care for safety procedures. In almost all cases, teachers set a good example in these matters and back this up by direct references in their teaching.
4.23 In other cases there is no clearly defined `correct' attitude. For example, pupils may be encouraged to look for solutions that balance the needs and concerns of individuals, the financial costs, the ease of development, and the environmental costs and benefits - but there are few real examples where there is no room for disagreement. The best teaching approaches are those which help pupils to understand the issues, their inter-relationships and the perspectives of other people, and develop techniques for coming to conclusions when these are required. These approaches will certainly involve discussion, reading and listening to diverse views, actively seeking to understand the views of others, and identifying the consequences of actions.
4.24 For both types of issue - those where there are clearly acceptable and unacceptable attitudes and those where the issues are less certain ~ good teachers address the issues openly, provide a positive example where this is necessary, help pupils to become aware of those issues where decisions and attitudes are less clear-cut and encourage pupils to talk about and explore their own views. They also review their own attitudes and how these are communicated to pupils, and are prepared, when necessary, to discourage 'inappropriate' attitudes where these are shown by pupils or by other staff.
4.25 Computing studies departments can contribute in many ways to the development of positive attitudes by pupils to their work in general and to computing and IT in particular. These include features common to all good teaching, such as the maintenance of respect for individuals, demonstration by teachers of high standards of work and carefully planned and relevant pupil experiences. They also include a number of aspects more specifically relevant to computing, as discussed in the following paragraphs.
4.26 The value of using IT across the curriculum and acquiring IT skills is promoted in the policy statements of many schools, and computing departments have a key role to play in implementing this policy, not just by ensuring that pupils have the basic skills to use the school's computing facilities, but also by encouraging a positive attitude towards the use of IT as a general learning tool. These twin objectives are often promoted in computing studies by encouraging, or requiring, pupils to use word-processing, graphics or desk top publishing packages to produce documentation for computer programs, reports and other assignments. Pupils are also often given access to these software facilities for the production of material for other subjects.
4.27 In many cases, because computing studies departments manage hardware facilities on behalf of the entire school, pupils in computing classes work side by side with teachers from a variety of disciplines, office staff, and pupils producing work for other subjects. This has several benefits: the pupils see the relevance of computing to other aspects of the work of the school; teachers (including those of computing studies) are often seen by pupils as fellow learners; and pupils become used to working in an environment where there must be a responsible attitude to the sharing of resources.
4.28 Because of the complexity of the computing resources now used in schools, and the number and variety of users of these resources, it is important that pupils use the resources responsibly. This covers aspects such as the physical care of equipment and other materials, and managing the access to shared resources such as printers. Perhaps what is more important, however, is the need for pupils to develop a responsible attitude to the data on the computer system, particularly if there is a computer network. Because it is relatively easy for data on a network to be corrupted or destroyed (whether carelessly or maliciously), it is tempting for teachers to impose severe restrictions on access to information. Whilst there must be some security measures, particularly for any assessment or other personal data that are held, many departments favour a policy of open access to software and data, supported by the development of responsible pupil attitudes. In most cases, pupils have responded positively to open rather than restrictive policies on access to accommodation and resources, and many computer rooms are available to pupils all day. While staff will normally be in the department when pupils are using machines, their role is usually supportive rather than supervisory. Whatever policy on access is adopted, departments can use this as the basis for discussions on issues of responsibility.
General Learning Skills
4.29 The learning of computing contributes, along with all other subjects, to the development of general learning skills. Problem-solving, searching for factual information and the development of appropriate attitudes have been discussed above. In addition to these, perhaps the main contribution that computing studies makes is in independent learning, both through the projects and investigations that are formally assessed parts of courses, and in the extensive self-study expected, especially at CSYS level. Independent learning involves planning, making choices, taking responsibility, seeking comments and undertaking self-evaluation. These skills need to be taught and encouraged, and good computing teachers teach them explicitly.
4.30 The importance of developing study skills across all subjects is recognised in many school policy statements. Computing studies departments respond in various ways; the best approaches help to develop skills of note-making, use of reference texts, discussion and planning project work or other learning tasks. The attention to study skills has been most evident in Higher Grade classes. In one school, for example:
"Study skills were treated as a whole-school issue and the advice that had been offered to students was put to good use on the course. Opportunities were provided for students to carry out short investigations in class and to report their findings to their peers. This helped pupils develop research and communication skills and the ability to identify the key aspects of a topic."
4.31 Less emphasis tends to be placed on the development of study skills at earlier stages, although exceptions have been seen. Teachers have been observed discussing the general principles of writing project reports; others set tasks which required pupils to identify appropriate reference texts and extract information from them; and some discussed with pupils ways of keeping their notes in a form that would aid later revision. Many, however, seemed to take these skills for granted, and while they might criticise poor practice or help specific individuals who had difficulties, they did not actively teach these learning techniques to their classes. In order to meet the requirements of good school policies on study skills, it is necessary for departments to develop a progressive policy from S1 to S6, preferably as part of a whole-school approach.
4.32 Many computing courses, including Standard and Higher Grade, include a project or investigation that is assessed to provide evidence of candidates' problem-solving and technical capabilities. Whilst projects can be highly motivating for pupils and can provide opportunities for them to take significant responsibility for their. own learning, they require careful management by the teacher. Teachers should monitor carefully the progress of each pupil on a regular basis and help pupils to evaluate their work and organise their time. In particular, they should agree specific targets with deadlines at various points throughout a project rather than relying upon one deadline at the end of the course.
4.33 Standard Grade projects are expected to take 10-15 hours to complete; at Higher Grade pupils conduct an Investigation that takes at least 20 hours; those taking the programming project module devote 40 hours to the production of a single piece of software; and the CSYS project is expected to take around 80 hours, half the total time available for the course. However, progression is not simply a matter of increase in allocated time. More importantly, these projects are increasingly specified and managed by pupils themselves.
4.34 Effective teachers do not expect pupils to carry out one large project without any relevant experience. They provide a range of tasks throughout each course that gives pupils practice in using the skills that they will need for the final project.
Teaching the Technical aspects of Computing
4.35 Previous sections have focused on the development of general computing abilities. The next two deal with particular technical issues: the use of general purpose software packages, and the teaching of programming.
Generic software packages
4.36 While packages designed to carry out one function (such as a word-processor that can only process text) have been used in schools for many years, schools are now beginning to use more complex packages, such as spreadsheets, with charting facilities, programmable databases, word-processors that can handle graphic images, and fully integrated packages. This change reflects commercial trends, and enables pupils to have practical experience of concepts, such as package integration, which they are required to understand for the new Standard Grade as well as the Higher Grade. Until recently, advanced software packages were used mainly in more advanced courses, but there has been a transformation within the last year or so in the sophistication of the software that is now used daily by pupils in almost all computing studies classrooms. Where these packages are available in a restricted form, they can often be used easily by inexperienced pupils, with more advanced features of the software being introduced in subsequent courses.
4.37 It is helpful if the general purpose packages used in computing studies are the same as those used in other subjects. The S1 /S2 course may, for example, introduce pupils to a word-processor that is also used in English and modem languages; similarly, a database may be used which is also encountered in science or the social subjects. In later courses, more advanced features of such software may be investigated, perhaps to illustrate features of information-processing that are relevant to commercial data-processing or aspects of computer systems theory, by which time it may be relevant to use more advanced packages not used elsewhere in the school. Most schools have a mixture of BBC computers and `16-bit' systems such as Apple Macintosh, RM Nimbus and Acorn Archimedes. Schools and computing departments need to decide whether it is still important to teach pupils how to use the general purpose software available on BBC machines, given that it is often non-standard, and less sophisticated and harder to use than software available on the 16-bit systems.
4.38 When taught well, the use of these packages can introduce and vividly illustrate fundamental computing concepts. Furthermore, the practical techniques required to make effective use of different packages are now broadly similar, and by learning how to use one set of packages, pupils acquire skills which will be widely applicable. In making decisions about upgrading their software provision, schools must strike a balance between having the latest packages and the costs and development overheads associated with regular changes of software.
Programming
4.39 There was considerable emphasis in early courses on the writing of program code, usually in BASIC, although other languages were also used. As experience and confidence have grown, the formal requirement in most early courses that specific programming constructs should be taught using a named imperative language has been replaced by a broader view of programming: that pupils should learn how to control the computer by using the skills of problem-solving discussed earlier using whichever programming environment is considered most suitable by the teacher. In most schools, this still involves programming in languages such as COMAL or Pascal, but there is also some use of other programming environments such as Logo, PROLOG or robotics control languages. Of all of the aspects of computing courses, the teaching of programming has proved the most difficult and controversial. Some teachers and commentators have firm views about purposes, teaching approaches and languages; others have few qualms about admitting their uncertainty. Most would agree, however, that while many pupils enjoy the challenge of programming activity, most find it both difficult and time-consuming.
4.40 While this is a problematic area with no simple solutions, there are common features in those schools where pupils are successful at programming. As with the acquisition of practical skills, the use of high-level languages is carefully planned from S1 to S6. In the most successful schools, programming work is built into S1/S2, using packages such as turtle graphics or the Acorn Cargo program, which provide pupils with a gentle introduction to some of the concepts of computer programming. There is a steady development of programming skills throughout the Standard Grade course, rather than its delivery as a single block of work. There are two views about the choice of language at Higher Grade: that it is easier to continue with the development of the same language, generally COMAL; or that learning a new language such as Pascal or PROLOG lends a valuable breadth to the pupils' experience. There is, as yet, no consensus on this matter.
4.41 While the idea that programming should be presented as a problem-solving activity has gained widespread agreement, the particular approach that is used varies across schools. Techniques, such as breaking down a problem into a series of more easily solved sub-problems, have helped to introduce a more rigorous approach to the teaching of programming in recent years, reflecting software engineering trends in industry. In effective approaches, pupils are encouraged to think about the general strategies used, and develop a repertoire of techniques that they have experience of applying in different contexts: in less successful approaches, there is a tendency for pupils to work through a series of detailed exercises without ever developing a conscious strategy for solving programming problems.
4.42 In designing programming tasks for pupils to tackle, teachers should decide how open-ended to make the activity. If the objective is to develop a specific programming technique or acquire some detailed knowledge, then the task may have to be defined tightly so that the pupil is likely to appreciate the need for the skill or knowledge in question. If the concern is to develop broader problem-solving techniques, it may be more relevant to specify the task at a general level, so that the pupil has to make choices about how to approach the task, and about what represents an appropriate solution. Maintaining a balance between these types of task is one of the characteristics of good programming teaching. There is still a tendency for some teachers to focus on specific programming techniques and neglect more general issues, and for others to adopt an approach that concentrates almost entirely on general methods without giving pupils enough structured experience of specific techniques.
4.43 In some classes inspected recently, pupils were able to produce working code if the problem was simple enough or had been analysed for them, but could not predict what would happen if a simple change was made to the code, or describe how to change the code to solve a similar problem. With experience, teachers are developing techniques which promote understanding. In one of the Standard Grade lessons seen, for example:
"The teacher conducted a role play of the operation of a program, with pupils playing the part of program lines, using cardboard boxes as memory locations and large sheets of paper as variables. This was helpful as an introduction for the less able pupils, because it helped them to think about what was happening one step at a time".
This contratsted with another lesson where the class listened passively to a teacher describing the design of a program without any direct involvement in discussion about the process. In another school, pupils went straight to the 'what to do' part of the worksheet without reading the explanation: this approach was also unlikely to produce understanding.
4.44 A major problem faced by many of the weaker pupils is that they tend to forget the mechanical details of programming, such as the syntax of the language, from one lesson to the next. In order to program successfully, they need to use a programming environment where such details are self-evident and where there is an easy-to-use source of help. For more able pupils, many teachers felt that there was so much content at Credit level that pupils had not enough time to internalise the constructs and techniques, and hence found the programming projects hard because they did not have a repertoire of skills to apply. It is hoped that the increase in time for programming in the amended Standard Grade Arrangements will alleviate this problem.
Responding to the Needs and Abilities of Individuals,
4.45 In addition to ensuring that the content of courses is covered using appropriate teaching and learning methods, teachers should make sure that they respond adequately to the needs of different individuals and groups. of pupils.
4.46 In S1/S2, it is common for pupils to have had very different experiences of computers, both in their primary schools and outside school. It is even possible that they will have a variety of experience within other secondary subjects. Classes are usually formed on a mixed-ability basis, and pupils undertake the same range of learning activities. Where S1/S2 courses are short, this causes few difficulties for most pupils, although there can be a lack of challenge for the most able. In longer courses, however, it is necessary to take more careful account of the needs of individuals and recognise that some pupils will be able to progress much further than others. At present, many pupils are not provided with sufficiently demanding work in their S1 / S2 course, often because the focus of the course is on the needs of those with very limited previous experience. Learning and teaching strategies and course content should be flexible enough to cope with the range of previous experience and attainment of the pupils. This may involve the use of more open-ended techniques when setting tasks or asking questions. It may involve a recognition that some pupils do not need to cover a particular topic, or that they should be set much more demanding tasks which will require them to explore new content.
4.47 As indicated in the previous chapter, many Standard Grade classes have pupils working at Foundation, General and Credit levels. A common method of meeting different learning needs is for pupils to work at their own pace through a common set of activities within a particular unit of the course, the more able pupils progressing at a faster rate and covering more material. This means that all pupils must work through the most elementary materials, whether or not they need to. Increasingly, however, teachers are beginning to collate material by level for each section of the course. In one school, for example, the teacher had issued a set of programming examples in which tasks were set on the same themes but at different levels; with some teacher guidance, pupils were able to make sensible selections from these tasks.
4.48 In the best schools, teachers plan approaches and techniques to meet the needs of all groups of pupils. In one school:
"The teaching materials, most of which were prepared by the principal teacher, provided effectively for differentiated learning. For each topic, there were plans for guiding pupils through F, G, and C materials as appropriate. These impressive plans indicated routes for progression and remediation and were effectively mapped onto the teaching materials and assessment structure."
4.49 In another, motivation was maintained:
"Pupils worked individually for most of the lesson and groups were formed on an ad hoc basis for pupils who had reached a similar stage in the course or who had difficulty with the same part of the course. In these groups the teacher was able to give additional instruction and introduce more demanding exercises for the more able pupils, and in other groups he encouraged pupils to explore their common difficulties and provided additional help."
4.50 By contrast, in the most unsatisfactory cases, all pupils are required to undertake exactly the same tasks. This can result in the more able pupils spending much of each lesson doing exercises as part of a whole-class lesson that are trivial for them and which, in some cases, they have previously covered on their own while weaker pupils struggle with tasks that may be incomprehensible to them. This type of approach is increasingly rare.
4.51 In a number of the schools inspected recently, however, including some which had already made significant progress towards the production of differentiated materials, the needs of some individuals, especially the most and/ or least able were not being adequately addressed. In evaluating their provision, schools should ensure that they look at the course from the perspective of individual pupils.
4.52 At Higher Grade, the range of pupil ability in classes is usually narrower, although the pupils who attempt Higher in S5 after attaining Grade 3 or 4 at Standard Grade usually find the course too difficult to complete successfully in one year. Most teachers take advantage of the two levels of tasks provided in the .national support materials to provide challenging tasks for the more able pupils.
4.53 National Certificate provision is usually tailored to the needs and abilities of the individual by encouraging pupils to progress at their own pace through the materials. It is rare, however, for schools to provide different learning materials for different pupils working on the same module, and for many pupils this means that they are working at quite a low level when undertaking modular work. Schools should examine whether they could provide greater challenge for abler pupils, by offering them an advanced module or providing a broader range of materials for each module. Because pupils in these classes tend to work by themselves, most teachers rarely bring them together as a class or group for discussion, demonstration or exposition. As a result, much of the teacher contact with pupils is focused on specific technical difficulties and on the process of assessment, and pupils are not made as aware of important concepts as they would be in a class where there was more direct teacher input.
Variety of Learning and Teaching Approaches
4.54 There has been an improvement in the range of learning and teaching approaches seen, particularly in S1-S4, as teachers become more confident and skilled at teaching the subject. The following extract is typical of HM Inspectors' comments in recent inspections:
"In S1-S2, lessons were conducted through a good blend of class teaching and individual pupil practical work, with the teacher providing good individual support."
4.55 When Standard Grade was first introduced, many teachers encouraged pupils to work individually through worksheet material and practical tasks. Whole-class activity was often limited to introductory lessons, and group work was almost non-existent. With increasing experience, most teachers have adopted a broader range of approaches: whole-class teaching and discussion are stronger features in many departments, and pupils more frequently work together in small groups on specific tasks.
4.56 The variety of learning approaches which pupils experience has increased, but lessons are still quite often biased towards practical work with computers at the expense of consolidation of theoretical concepts. In the best examples seen, a variety of techniques was used within each lesson, not all lessons followed the same pattern, and activities were chosen to maintain interest and to match the specific learning needs of the pupils and the nature of the topic being studied. In classes where pupils were inadequately prepared for what they were about to do, where they followed instructions from worksheets, mechanically at work stations, and where there was limited variety from day to day, pupils' motivation was low and little learning of the underlying computing principles took place.
4.57 Almost all schools form teaching groups of at most 20 pupils for computing studies. In teaching groups with more than 20 pupils, there can be problems of access by pupils to resources, difficulties in effective supervision of practical activity, and the learning and teaching approaches used may be restricted to make it easier for the teacher to cope with the numbers.
Expositions, Demonstrations and Discussion
4.58 Effective teachers of all subjects communicate well with pupils. They give information, instructions and support, prompt thought and discussion, and react to requests for help and advice; they also refrain from unnecessarily interrupting pupils who are engaged in productive work. In computing studies classes. the extent to which teachers effectively use the full range of communication activities varies considerably. Most have now recognised that there is a need to ensure a balance across the range of possible teaching styles. Computing studies involves a considerable amount of practical activity and teachers have always supported this by giving effective help to individuals in response to problems which they encounter. More teachers now supplement this type of activity by giving clear expositions to the whole class which deal with key ideas rather than simply organisational matters, and by careful questioning of groups and individuals. A smaller number engage pupils in effective discussion of relevant issues.
4.59 Many classes are organised so that all pupils work at their own pace, sometimes tackling different units of work. This approach yields benefits in terms of meeting individual needs. There are difficulties, however, since this approach may require repeated demonstrations or explanations of technical matters and reduces the number of opportunities for whole-class and group discussion of issues and concepts. As a result, the focus of the teacher's attention is sometimes on technical matters to the exclusion of general principles and issues. The best teachers are conscious of this danger and try to bring pupils together in groups whenever possible for explanations and discussion. These sessions help to consolidate learning. In particular, they enable teachers to emphasise the links between practical work and theoretical concepts; and they can also provide a cue to pupils on what was most important in a given lesson.
4.60 Exposition is also used to great effect by many teachers to explain concepts to a whole class or to a group of pupils, or to demonstrate and lead pupils through technical processes. Many of the best of these expositions make good use of visual displays, including computer screens, to illustrate software and practical techniques, although pupils can have difficulty viewing the demonstration when there are no large computer monitors. This problem is sometimes solved by the teacher using a computer network to transmit a common image to all screens. Pupils can also have problems when they try to replicate a set of technical instructions on their own as the teacher goes through them on his or her own computer. If a pupil makes a mistake, or loses the place, it may then be impossible to understand the rest of the demonstration. This problem is less likely to occur when the teacher can see all screens simultaneously.
4.61 Whether lessons are based on whole-class, group or individual activity, the role of questioning and discussion is critical. Some lessons start with the teacher directing a question to the class, to a group or to an individual thereby raising the basic issue to be considered during that lesson. Well-considered questions can help pupils focus on key issues and principles. In computing studies, questions that lead to the most productive learning often begin 'What would happen if ... ? ` or 'How could you get the computer to .... ?, especially where pupils can test out their own answers to these questions directly on their computer.
Learning Support
4.62 The provision of learning support to computing studies has increased significantly in recent years. This usually takes the form of individual support for pupils with particular learning needs. In many cases, this involves physical help or assistance for pupils with communication or mobility difficulties. This support enables many pupils to overcome practical problems which would otherwise hinder their learning. Less frequent, but equally important, are cases where learning support is provided to the whole-class by a `team teacher'. In one school, for example, there was help from a learning support specialist who taught with both the S1 / S2 and Standard Grade computing studies classes and was able to ' discuss and advise on general and subject-specific teaching issues. There are also instances of learning support teachers providing useful consultancy advice to computing studies departments about the nature and presentation of learning materials.
Homework
4.63 There is a tendency for only minimal homework to be given in S1 /S2, for example finding out a piece of information or bringing in a computerised clothing label. This type of task can be helpful when it contributes to the preparation for a classroom activity. Some pupils will be quite keen to tackle more substantial tasks - such as preparing a program or designing a graphic for entry into the computer - and this should be encouraged. Similarly, almost no homework is given to National Certificate classes. This is usually a reflection of the fact that there is little pressure of time, and most pupils can succeed comfortably within the time given to the course. One way of making these courses more challenging would be to expect pupils to complete more modules during the year, and this might require them to undertake homework. For pupils undertaking Foundation and most General level courses, some homework is expected, but in many cases this is revision for assessments rather than original work. At Credit Level and Higher Grade, most schools expect pupils to undertake a significant amount of homework (although many teachers appear to have little idea how much time is devoted by their pupils to homework, either in computing studies or in total). While some teachers set a substantial volume of formal exercises that must be handed in for marking, others leave the definition of the tasks up to the pupils. Neither is very helpful to pupils, and the best approaches are those which combine regular tasks of moderate length, which are individually checked and commented on by teachers, with an expectation that pupils will (with appropriate guidance) plan and undertake a significant amount of private study and project work in their own time.