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Effective Learning and Teaching in Scottish Secondary Schools: Computing Studies

5. STAFFING AND IRESOURCING FOREFFECTIVE LEARNING ANDTEACHING

This chapter considers what must be provided in a school to support effective delivery of courses. This includes a physical environment suitably resourced in terms of accommodation, textbooks and other print materials, hardware and software; and trained staff, both teaching and non-teaching.

Accommodation

5.1 Most computing studies courses are delivered in specialist laboratories. The size of these rooms is important since there needs to be sufficient space to accommodate not only computers, their peripherals and other learning resources, but also facilities for pupils to work on a range of activities away from the computers. Many schools provide tables or desks in the centre of the room (for writing or discussion) with the computers housed on peripheral work surfaces. Other successful physical layouts are possible, but an advantage of this system is that the teacher can see every screen simultaneously when pupils are doing practical work. Space is also needed for a large screen monitor to demonstrate computer software and view video material, and a site for an overhead projector. Storage space in computer rooms is often at a premium because of the need to store significant quantities of practical material as well as texts and pupil folders.

5.2 Schools coping with an expansion of provision in computing studies sometimes have problems locating rooms suitable for conversion close to existing accommodation. Piecemeal development has occasionally resulted in the dispersal of computing studies teaching throughout a school, which can make it difficult to establish a coherent department.

5.3 Computing laboratories can be very attractive learning environments, bright and stimulating, with displays of pupils' work, commercial posters and clippings from newspapers and periodicals. For a teacher to proclaim enthusiasm for the subject in this way can have a very positive impact on pupils.

5.4 Environmental factors have to be taken into account when designing rooms. In particular, strong sunlight can cause problems for pupils' reading display screens, and can add to the build-up of heat from equipment. Well-ventilated rooms with effective blinds are necessary for comfortable, effective working. The provision of good quality anti-static carpeting improves warmth, appearance and noise levels as well as providing protection from static build-up.

5.5 Laboratories are usually set up to accommodate a maximum class size of 20 pupils. Safety issues are paramount and ducted cabling, thoughtful positioning of power points and use of master control switches all contribute to the provision of a safe working environment.

5.6 Most schools now have at least two computer rooms and many have a third. The design and resourcing of these rooms have, in most cases, been intended to provide space for 20 pupils to work on the same types of hardware, but increasingly schools are equipping one of their rooms (often the smallest) with a variety of different types of system. As well as providing a useful facility for groups of staff and pupils from other departments, these rooms offer a valuable alternative resource for computing studies pupils, and flexible use of such facilities during lessons is seen in many of the best departments. Such a room can also provide a staff base for computing teachers.

Resources

5.7 Provision and organisation of resources are generally satisfactory for the courses being offered in schools, and very good in some cases.

Textbooks, documentation and other print materials

5.8 A substantial volume of teaching materials was produced nationally in support both of Standard and Higher Grade courses. These were distributed to all schools, and teachers made extensive initial use of them, selectively adapting and replacing them as they gained experience of teaching the courses.

5.9 Textbooks can be especially useful for consideration of theoretical aspects, for homework assignments and, in particular, with Credit level and Higher Grade pupils, for developing reference skills. In the past, computing studies teachers tended not to make extensive use of textbooks, because they preferred to rely more on worksheets, made only intermittent use of homework, or felt that no suitable texts had emerged. To offer complete coverage of a course, teachers sometimes had to consider the purchase of more than one textbook. Increasingly, however, schools have acquired class sets of a small number of textbooks that are used on a selective basis with pupils. Sometimes a single set is kept in the classroom for use by all classes. These are usually supplemented with single copies of a large number of other books.

5.10 The introduction of Higher Grade, with its pupil-centred approaches and emphasis on the need for research, encouraged teachers to develop their class libraries of reference texts, periodicals and manuals. However, experience to date suggests that pupils are not always making best use of these facilities and the provision of such resources has to be matched with explicit encouragement and training in how to use them.

5.11 To help pupils become independent users of computers, some teachers have acquired simplified documentation that summarises the main features of the computer system commands and the main software packages in use, in addition to the documentation provided by computer manufacturers and software publishers. Online help facilities, a feature of more recent software, provide useful support for pupils in their use of packages, and enable them to develop the specific reference skills required to make effective use of such facilities.

5.12 Much of the adaptation of externally provided or school-produced course materials that has taken place has been prompted by the need to provide materials for pupils with a range of abilities. Learning support services in schools can be of great help in providing advice on how to construct and use materials for pupils of different abilities. Many teachers have also reviewed their materials in an attempt to identify and eliminate any gender and ethnic bias or stereotyping.

Hardware

5.13 A new generation of hardware, usually based on Apple Macintosh, RM Nimbus or Acorn Archimedes, has been introduced into most schools, often at the same time as the Higher Grade course. The costs associated with this are significant, and to decide in which system or systems to invest is difficult. Because of improvements in software, hardware dependency is less of a problem than it was some years ago. The widespread use of general purpose packages, many of which are now available for several types of machine, and the existence of software and hardware facilities that allow emulation of one system on another, have allowed schools and education authorities greater freedom of purchase in resourcing computing courses. Authorities have given effective support to schools going through this transition by providing hardware, software and technical support.

5.14 Some have now replaced all the BBC systems that were used in the computing department, although most make use of both the newer technology and existing BBC computers in their delivery of courses. Sometimes this variety is purely a short-term measure until the transition is complete, but sometimes the BBC hardware is being kept because of its value for teaching certain topics, such as robotics. There was an initial concern that some software which was originally written for BBC computers would not be available on the new systems, but most schools have obtained satisfactory replacement software, adapted teaching approaches or rewritten support materials, and this problem has been rapidly overcome.

5.15 Until recently, the use of more than one type of machine was often regarded as problematic because of issues related to maintenance, familiarity and software compatibility. In most schools, these problems are now seen as being less important and, within reason, the advantages of diversity are thought to outweigh the disadvantages. Networks are available in most classrooms and often form part of a wider department or school network. As well as allowing the sharing of software and peripherals, this gives pupils experience of this aspect of computing. Network management is still problematic and time-consuming in some schools, but in most the technical problems have reduced considerably as more advanced facilities have been installed and as staff have gained experience.

5.16 Some computing topics require that each pupil has ready access to a printer, and when this is not possible, classroom management problems can occur which impede successful learning. Until recently, most printing was carried out on cheap dot-matrix systems, but the use of laser printers, usually through a network, has increased significantly in the last year or so.

5.17 Because of the high practical component in the courses, each pupil needs regular access to a computer. Ideally, this is achieved by having one machine per pupil, and this level of provision is being made in an increasing number of rooms. In most courses, it is possible to organise reasonably effective pupil access to hardware with a ratio of two machines to three pupils, although this requires classes to be managed so that all members of the class are never engaged simultaneously on machine-based practical work. With large enough rooms, and unlimited hardware, most schools would choose to provide one machine per pupil in each computing classroom. Schools often decide, however, to restrict the number of machines in each room, in order to spread available hardware across as many rooms as possible, or because in smaller classrooms, it can be impossible to provide space for 20 computers and allow sufficient room for other activities.

Software

5.18 Most schools now have an adequate provision of basic software, including: word-processing, database, spreadsheet, graphics and facilities to integrate these; simulations, of computer applications including control and communications; and programming languages. Having more than one package of each category allows comparisons to be made, a useful element of more advanced courses. Until recently, most programming was carried out in BASIC or COMAL, but more schools are now using Pascal or PROLOG. Apart from these programming languages, there are two main changes in the software now available in schools. The first is that, as discussed in the previous chapter, much of the software is 'industry standard', of high quality, with a wide range of general features that enable the teaching of transferable practical skills. The second, related feature is that the software has become easier to use, partly because the use of devices such as windows, icons, menus and pointers (WIMPs) reduces the need to use complex, abstract textual commands, and partly because the way to make the computer do something is (usually) the same for all packages, so a technique need be learned only once. Teaching can be concentrated on the functions of a package without being impeded by difficulties related to its operation. One feature of some of the best such software is that it makes the functioning of the machine's operating system invisible to pupils. While this eliminates unnecessary complexity, it makes it harder to see directly what is happening inside the machine and teachers of computing studies have to decide how best to teach about some of internal features of computers that were previously all too obvious to pupils.

Staffing

Teaching Staff

5.19 There have been three main sources of teaching staff for computing courses: teachers who have been involved since the start of the subject in schools; teachers who have subsequently become involved; and teachers who have newly joined the profession. Their qualifications and training have followed different patterns.

5.20 A personal interest in microcomputers and an appreciation of their potential led many of the pioneers in the teaching of computing in schools to become involved in exploring the technology for themselves and in developing computing courses and applications for their pupils. Some of these teachers already had academic qualifications in computing, usually gained as part of a first degree in another subject, but the majority had no formal qualification when they began to develop the subject. Over the years, the majority of them have obtained both academic and teaching qualifications, usually through attendance at courses run by teacher training institutions and with the support of both their employing authority and their school.

5.21 Those who were involved initially could not themselves deliver all the teaching required to meet the early demand, particularly for courses in S1 /S2. In order to supplement the existing staffing provision, and in some cases to make best use of teachers of subjects with reduced pupil demand. many headteachers involved more of their existing teachers in the delivery of courses. In some cases, these teachers taught only for one or two sessions, mainly in S1 /S2, and were never formally trained or qualified. Others were sent on in-service courses leading to formal qualifications and have subsequently become full-time teachers of the subject.

5.22 The main source of new teachers is now the pre-service courses in the teacher training institutions. Initially, these allowed computing only as a second subject, but this restriction no longer applies, and a significant number of new teachers are available each year with computing as their professed `main' subject.

5.23 Perhaps because of the rapid build-up of the subject, there has always been a net deficit of teachers, although this has been officially estimated at less than 10 since 1988. (The true demand for teachers of the subject in schools is hard to estimate. In some cases, a vacancy in a subject is declared only when there is also a vacancy in the overall staffing complement; in other cases, a subject vacancy is indicated despite there being no vacancies in the overall staffing complement).

5.24 The university undergraduate computing courses of the 70's with their mainframe computer orientation have been superseded by those with a focus more appropriate to the content of today's courses in schools and, consequently, the graduates of the late 80's and 90's have the advantage of relevant first-hand experience of academic computing to bring to their initial training as teachers. One or two of the more recent recruits have a further advantage: the opportunity to reflect on their own experiences of having been taught computing themselves while at school.

5.25 The numbers of teachers qualified in computing, declaring computing as their main teaching subject, and using their qualification, all increased between 1988 and 1990, as did the proportions of female teachers in each of these categories. The proportion of computing teaching that is delivered by teachers qualified in the subject is also increasing, although it is still low relative to most other subjects. Recent evidence suggests that these trends have continued since 1990, although the next set of comparable data (based on the September 1992 census) will not be available for some time yet. At each stage, the time devoted to computing has increased as a proportion of the total time allocated to all subjects. (The distribution of the total computing time across the stages was similar in 1988 and 1990 - around 20% in S1/S2,50% in S3/S4 and 30% in S5/S6.)

Table 5.1 Teachers Qualified and Using Qualifications in Computing 1988 - 1990

Table 5.2 Percentage of Teaching by Teachers Qualified in Computing

Table 5.3 Percentage of All Teaching Time Devoted to Computing Studies

5.26 Positive arguments have sometimes been advanced in favour of using teachers without a formal qualification in computing to deliver introductory IT courses in S1/S2 - usually on the grounds that these teachers have a better understanding of the potential applications to other subjects. It is important that pupils learn about computer applications that are relevant outside school, and they should be taught by teachers who have a broad knowledge of external applications as well as an appreciation of their potential uses in teaching and learning. While any teacher with substantial technical knowledge, enthusiasm for the subject, and extensive experience of using computers in other subjects can certainly make a positive contribution to teaching in the early stages, it is important that their contribution is consistent with the school's aims and objectives for learning about computing, and contributes to the progressive development of computing knowledge and skills from S1 to S6. There are, unfortunately, still some cases where classes are taught by teachers whose subject knowledge is very limited, and who cannot provide pupils with a high-quality introduction to the subject.

5.27 While there is some room for debate about the role of teachers who have no formal computing qualification in the delivery of introductory courses, it is important that those teaching certificate courses have the same level of subject competence as is required of those teaching other subjects. The increased proportion of classes in S3-S6 taught by fully qualified staff is welcomed and it is hoped that this trend continues.

5.28 The amount of computing studies taught in 1990 by the 798 teachers who were qualified was equivalent to what would be taught by 472 full-time staff. Theoretically, therefore, there is a potential for increasing the amount of time that those qualified in the subject spend teaching it and, thereby, increasing the amount of the subject that is taught, reducing the need to use unqualified teachers or eliminating the subject deficit. In practice, of course, this is not easy to achieve, because some of these staff are in senior promoted posts, and many of the rest are involved in the teaching of mathematics, physics, or business studies, where there is rarely surplus time available to timetablers to enable a transfer of subject time to computing.

5.29 In recent years, a number of teachers who had been among the first principal teachers of computing have been promoted to AHT and beyond. As well as providing vacancies for the promotion of more recent recruits, this is increasing the number of schools in which senior promoted staff have first-hand experience of the subject.

5.30 The above data suggest that in 1990, on average, each secondary school delivered around 1.5 FI in computing studies(around 30 teaching hours per week), and had two qualified teachers. While schools vary significantly around this average, it was typical of many in 1990 that had one full-time teacher (usually promoted), and one or more teaching both computing and another subject. In many schools now, the trend is towards two full-time teachers, with a third part- or full-time teacher in larger schools, and the figures for 1992 are likely to show nearer 2 FTE on average.

5.31 Staff development is a major issue for computing teachers because the subject methodology, range of courses, and the technology itself are developing rapidly. In addition, most of those responsible for computing have had to establish and manage computing departments and support IT across the school without having had the experience of working as an unpromoted teacher in a computing department. An additional complication which should not be underestimated is that computing staff are often called upon to provide IT training for other staff, and this may reduce the time that is available for their own training.

5.32 The need for in-service, as well as pre-service training in such a new subject, developing in terms of the technology and in the methodology of course delivery, has been recognised. Central government, teacher training institutions, education authorities and schools have invested substantially in staff development related to the teaching of computing, and there has been valuable co-operation among the various agencies in organising and delivering this training. For example, the recent in-service training courses for Higher Grade funded by SOED encouraged successful co-operation among university lecturers, practising teachers, education authorities and teacher training institutions. The University Funding Council also funded courses and the production of in-service training materials related to Higher Grade. Education authorities and schools provide regular staff development opportunities through their use of planned activity time, school in-service days, and local support groups that generate materials for staff development and pupil use.

5.33 Because of the variety of their previous experience and qualifications in the subject, and the different stages of development across schools, teachers of computing have a variety of staff development needs. Where staff development activities have been matched to the identified needs of individuals, these have tended to be more successful and more highly valued by teachers than those activities that have been designed without reference to the needs of specific individuals. It is, of course, not always easy to identify in advance the range of needs which teachers will have, and flexibility needs to be built in at the planning stage to enable a positive response to the needs which teachers identify as they go through the course.

5.34 In the early days of the development of the subject, almost all qualified teachers of computing were teaching full-time in schools. Subject-qualified supply cover was therefore non-existent and this inevitably placed constraints on the release of teachers for in-service training, for development work at national, regional and local level, and for work with SEB or SCOT'VEC. In particular, this caused difficulties for many of the best teachers of the subject who were invited and wanted to contribute to external development work, but who did not want to leave their classes for any longer than necessary. Now that all major courses are in place and most of the major retraining exercises are complete, this should be less of a problem. In addition, qualified supply teachers of computing are now available in some parts of the country and are being used to cover release of teachers for development work as well as for staff absence.

Technician Support

5.35 Until recently, in-house technical support for computing was provided in most schools by those teachers with relevant expertise. These usually included the teacher(s) of computing and a few others and in only a very few cases did school technicians have relevant skills and time to contribute to this work. This resulted in teachers devoting a considerable amount of time to detailed technical work, sometimes carried out in their own time, and at the expense of their major functions of developing and delivering courses. This has been recognised in an increasing number of schools, and it is now common to find that one of the school technicians has responsibility for providing first-line technical support to all computer users in the school. In some cases, technicians have developed skills and knowledge while working in the school. Others are qualified in one or more related disciplines such as computing, educational technology, audio-visual technology or electronics. In the best cases, teachers can rely on the technician to set up the computer room at the start of the day (or lesson), maintain stock of equipment and materials, perform first-line maintenance, assist in network management, provide guidance to teachers (and sometimes pupils) using the system, and be on hand in classrooms should a technical problem arise. This service is both directly and indirectly beneficial to the computing department; they use this type of technician support themselves, and they do not need to provide such support to other departments.

5.36 Most education authorities provide centrally organised technical support which they have developed and extended as the computer systems have increased in volume and sophistication. Where these teams are large, they include hardware engineers, programmers and software librarians; in smaller teams, individuals inevitably have broader remits. These EA support teams usually undertake major installations, develop key software systems (such as network management systems), organise repairs that cannot be carried out in the school, and maintain and distribute software licensed to or produced by the EA.

5.37 In most schools, the quality of service provided by centrally based technical staff is commended by teachers, and the contribution of school-based technicians is highly valued. Effective and readily available technical support is essential to an computer users in schools, including teachers of computing studies. High quality local and central support is already available to many schools, but there is still significant variation in the extent and nature of this support

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