3.1 The characteristics of effective teaching and learning of science are the same, regardless of whether this takes place in a primary classroom or in a secondary science laboratory. The role of the teacher is crucial in promoting effective learning by pupils.
3.2 The HMI report Achieving Success in S1/S2 gives advice about direct teaching. Direct teaching is the teacher's active engagement with pupils about their learning. It involves giving clear expositions and explanations and interacting with pupils through questioning and discussion. Teachers should spend most of their time working in this way with pupils, whether as a whole-class, groups or individuals.
Science lessons
3.3 Effective science lessons tend to have a number of characteristic features, all of which are heavily dependent on the professional skills and judgement of the teacher. In lessons judged to be of a good or very good standard, HMI identified the following key features in the teaching of science in primary and secondary schools.
3.4 The TIMSS researchers collected data from pupils and teachers in all the participating countries about teaching and learning of science. Scotland was unusual in a number of ways compared with higher achieving countries. It had the smallest science classes in secondary schools, with 99% of classes in S1 and S2 containing 20 or fewer pupils. Less time was spent in whole-class teaching of science in primary and secondary schools than in all other participating countries. Further, less science homework was set, both in primary and secondary schools. Given that frequent whole-class teaching and homework are characteristics of high performing countries, teachers of science in primary and secondary schools should review their teaching approaches to ensure they take account of the characteristics of effective science lessons as defined in paragraph 3.3.
Questioning and discussion
3.5 Children's inherent curiosity naturally leads them to ask questions. They are constantly exploring their environment, encountering new situations and ever eager to learn. They have an insatiable desire for knowledge, wanting to know the names of things, how they work and why they are the way they are. As well as acquiring the language and vocabulary of science, children seek solutions to hypothetical and often highly thought-provoking questions. This phenomenon is widely recognised by every parent and teacher, especially of young children since it places great demands on them.
3.6 Inspection evidence shows that exposition is a very effective means of extending pupils' knowledge and understanding. It is most effective when used in conjunction with questioning and discussion where the teacher builds up a picture of the pupils' understanding, starting from their previous knowledge. Effective teachers are adept at presenting information and distributing questions around the class. Incorrect answers are followed up to trace and learn from misunderstandings, usually to the benefit of the whole class.
3.7 HMI found that many teachers of science created an environment which encouraged pupils to use their senses, to ask questions and to seek answers. This was particularly true in primary schools where teachers used nature or science tables to promote scientific enquiry. Pupils were given tasks which required them to observe, measure, discuss and record. Pupils' willingness to ask difficult questions was not seen as a threat, but rather as a challenge which had to be met. It was a feature of good science teaching that teachers created a stimulating environment where questions were encouraged and where opportunities were provided to seek answers to these questions, usually during the context of practical work.
3.8 Questioning, both by teachers and pupils, was noted by HMI to be an effective way of checking understanding of ideas. The answers given proved useful to teachers and pupils. Teachers used the information to gauge understanding or misunderstanding of concepts. Pupils used this new information to confirm or further develop ideas. HMI found that the best questions were substantial, open-ended and challenging enough to make pupils think scientifically and respond at length. Questions such as these demanded higher levels of thinking and encouraged higher achievement by pupils. Similarly, pupils achieved better in situations where they were allowed to ask strategic and demanding questions of the teacher.
3.9 Research evidence supports the view that teachers who have a sound knowledge of their subject matter are more likely to engage in whole-class questioning and discussion of topics. Further, they are more likely to invite questions from their pupils. Where teachers lack confidence or competence in the subject matter, they tend to avoid asking open-ended questions. Such teachers are often concerned when they do not immediately know the "correct answer" to pupils' questions. When this situation arises, good teachers often engage in further questioning which can help to clarify what understanding or misunderstanding lies behind the question.
3.10 HMI found that some teachers were very effective at directing questions at specific pupils. They tried to match questions to pupils' needs in order to give them all some degree of success. Such teachers were also skilled at building up concepts by asking questions about previously covered work and, where this approach was taken forward in small steps, it proved successful. This helped to build confidence and also allowed the teacher to identify gaps in understanding or to correct misconceptions which had arisen. Research evidence supports the view that children have their own ideas about scientific phenomena, often based on information they have acquired outside school. Their ideas are often based on quite reasonable premises but tend to conflict with current scientific thinking. Good science teachers anticipate likely areas of confusion about particular concepts. HMI noted that some science teachers made good use of well-designed commercial materials which mapped out known areas of difficulty. In both primary and secondary schools, teachers have an important role to play in identifying pupils' misconceptions before moving on to help them to develop better scientific explanations.
3.11 There are many strategies which can be used to encourage pupils to ask and find answers to questions. In some secondary science departments, HMI noted that teachers were using commercial materials to develop 'thinking skills' associated with problem solving, reasoning, drawing conclusions, analysing and evaluating evidence, and hypothesising. Following training in their use, teachers used these materials to supplement existing programmes of science teaching. Pupils were presented with theoretical and practical problems which they tried to solve with the support of their teachers. Through skilful use of questioning, teachers guided pupils' thinking, sometimes challenging their conclusions but always offering strategies to solve problems. Research evidence indicates that, where thinking skills have been taught in this way, there have been long-term improvements in achievement, not only in science but also in English and mathematics. This would suggest that these thinking skills are transferable and could lead to improvements in attainment across a number of key areas.
Practical work
3.12 Practical work forms an essential component of science provision in both primary and secondary schools. Pupils enjoy doing practical work since it gives them opportunities to be active in different ways and to interact with their teachers on a less formal basis than normal. It also provides valuable opportunities for direct teaching. There are occasions when teacher demonstrations can be the safest, most economical and most effective means of giving pupils first-hand experience of some phenomenon. Teachers can encourage careful observation and measurement, ask probing questions to check understanding of concepts, ensure safe practice and extend pupils' awareness of real-life applications of science.
3.13 Because practical work is expensive of time and resources, teachers need to be very clear about the learning outcomes which are intended. Practical work should be structured and purposeful, with clearly defined goals for pupils to achieve. Effective practical work should allow pupils to:
3.14 In secondary schools, there has been heavy investment in the provision of specialist staffing, accommodation, materials and equipment for science. In the period from 1995-98, HMI found that the provision of resources was very good in 24% of science departments, good in 68% and fair in 8%. A frequent weakness was limited access to computers. Virtually all science lessons in secondary schools, whether theoretical or practical, are carried out in laboratories.
3.15 At S1/S2, practical work is a regular feature of most science lessons. It is undertaken by the whole class at the same time, although pupils usually work in small groups. Pupils are trained in safe working practices and are well aware of the potential risks of working in laboratories. Pupils are given opportunities to carry out techniques or experiments, often following instructions on worksheets or in a textbook. However, HMI found little evidence of science teachers planning what purpose practical work would serve and how it would enhance pupils' learning or attainment. Pupils were given too few opportunities to develop skills of investigating, including planning, collecting evidence, recording and presenting and interpreting and evaluating. In a few departments, HMI noted that pupils had been involved in planning and carrying out open-ended investigations. Typically, this started as a whole-class activity early in S1 and, as pupils gained in confidence, they were allowed to work in small groups on their own practical investigations. Pupils were also taught individual skills such as planning, for example, when they were asked to plan an investigation which was too costly or dangerous to carry out in a school. The same was also true for skills of analysing and evaluating where pupils were sometimes given second-hand data to interpret as a homework activity. Science teachers should review how they teach practical work in order to broaden the range of investigative skills being taught and practised. They should also ensure that pupils record the results of practical work neatly and accurately in their notebooks.
3.16 An enquiry based approach to learning has characterised all recent developments in primary science education. National guidelines have continued this theme by promoting first hand experience and an investigative approach to science. While HMI have found much good practice, particularly at the early stages, practical work in science is not a regular feature of most primary classrooms.
3.17 In the period from 1995-98, HMI found that in 26% of primary schools the overall provision of resources had important weaknesses or was unsatisfactory. The most recent AAP survey reported that only one quarter of primary schools were well equipped with practical materials for science. Schools very often have some specialist science equipment, but it is not available in sufficient quantity to allow a class of pupils to carry out practical work. Shortage of suitable equipment means that class lessons cannot take place and teachers can only allow small numbers of pupils to carry out science at any one time. This is wasteful of teachers' and pupils' time. Even in schools where resourcing of science is good, it was unusual for HMI to find resources organised in such a way that teachers could gain ready access to them. In the most effective schools, resources were brought together in the form of kits which included sufficient materials to carry out class lessons. Education authorities and schools should seek to address any shortages of science equipment and should find better ways of organising resources to support teaching and learning.
3.18 Almost all the science described in the national guidelines can be carried out safely in a primary classroom, as described in the Scottish CCC teachers' guides. The Association for Science Education booklet, Be Safe, provides further helpful advice about safe practice in primary science education. Some activities, mainly relating to Levels E and F, may require specialist facilities and it would be more appropriate to carry them out in a science laboratory. This does not however, preclude primary teachers from covering key features at these levels as long as they adopt safe approaches to practical activities.
Assessment and reporting
3.19 In the period from 1995-98, HMI found that the use of assessment to guide learning and teaching in science had important weaknesses or was unsatisfactory in 82% of primary schools and 32% of secondary schools. In most primary schools, there was no summative assessment and reporting of pupils' attainment in science. In S1/S2, practice was of variable quality. Typically, end-of-topic tests were used to assess knowledge and understanding and aspects of problem solving on a similar model to that used for Standard Grade courses. In some secondary schools, certain practical skills were also assessed.
3.20 In a small number of cases, HMI found examples of good work in science assessment, including the collection of evidence for reporting and offering advice about the next steps in pupils' learning. Knowledge and understanding and aspects of handling information and problem solving were assessed by means of end-of-topic written tests, given to the whole class or to groups of pupils. These tests sampled pupils' achievement of key learning targets and emphasised understanding rather than the acquisition of superficial knowledge. A few schools assessed the investigative skills of planning, collecting evidence, recording and presenting, and interpreting and evaluating, either as discrete skills, or collectively when pupils were carrying out a practical investigation. Teachers observed pupils carrying out practical work and were able to assess whether or not they could handle equipment safely and competently and how successfully they contributed in a group activity. Practical work, which was written up in a jotter or workbook, served as a permanent record which teachers assessed later against set criteria.
3.21 Overall, however, there was little evidence of primary and secondary schools assessing and reporting levels attained in science in line with national advice. HMI evidence indicates a number of reasons for the poor practice in assessing and reporting, which include:
3.22 This situation in Scotland contrasts with that in other parts of the UK and in parts of the USA. In these countries, clear targets for learning, supported by associated assessment schemes and national or state tests, have helped teachers understand what has to be taught and assessed. Teachers are better able to focus their teaching and thus raise standards of attainment.
3.23 When national testing was first introduced in English language and mathematics in Scotland in 1988, it was the Government's intention to include science "in due course". The production of assessment materials in science, on a national basis, designed to measure progress and attainment against more clearly defined attainment targets, would have a number of benefits, including the following:-